From Bulk to Nanoparticles: An Overview of Antiviral Materials, Its Mechanisms, and Applications

Abstract

Infectious diseases caused by viruses are a global health concern and have become prominent in light of the recent COVID‐19 pandemic. Considering the limitations of drugs and prophylactic methods used in current medicine, antiviral materials are a useful strategy in preventing the spread of viruses and enhancing treatment efficiency. Thus, this review highlights the state‐of‐the‐art antiviral materials, describes the scientific landscape of the primary antiviral materials used based on bibliometric analysis, presents their mechanisms of action, and discusses their clinical applications. The mechanisms of action underlying the broad‐spectrum antiviral properties of metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites are also discussed. Polyanions, polycations, oxides, and metal‐based materials, from bulk to nanoparticles, have good potential in antiviral applications that may help prepare the world for future viral breakouts.

Transparent Anti-SARS COV-2 Film from Copper(I) Oxide Incorporated in Zeolite Nanoparticles

“…Possible mechanisms of Cu 2 O as an active nanoparticle for antiviral activity can be explained by several assumptions consisting of (i) the interference with viral replication stages, (ii) the viral protein disruption by Cu 2 O nanoparticles, (iii) the generation of reactive oxygen species by free copper ions released from the nanoparticles causing the denaturation of DNA and damaged virus integrity, and (iv) the direct physical contact between the surface of Cu 2 O nanoparticles and viruses causing the damage to proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and other cellular components in the virus structure. ,− …”

“…Z does not significantly induce embryonic mortality as shown in Figure 5a. However, relative to the control, 07Cu-Z at all concentrations (20,40,60,80, and 100 μg/mL) significantly decreases survival rates to 76.7 ± 2.9, 48.3 ± 2.9, 18.3 ± 2.9, 10.0 ± 5.0, and 0.0 ± 0.0%, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 5b. The estimated 50% lethal concentration (LC 50 ) of 07Cu-Z to zebrafish embryos at 96 hpf is 48.1 ± 2.7 μg/mL.…”

Nanoscale Interaction Mechanisms of Antiviral Activity

“…Polycations also show antiviral activities by inactivating the influenza virus through adsorption onto the influenza virus surface, damaging the lipidic envelope, and leaking the RNA . Ag nanoparticles either directly interact with virus particles or prevent their adsorption, including binding, attachment, and penetration into the cell …”

“…Some of the types of extracellular prevention methods of nanoscale interaction with viruses include (a) virucidal, where nanoparticles cleave inside the viruses by interacting with the viral surface protein (gp120) in enveloped and unenveloped virus, blocking the fusion, entry, and infectivity; 9 (b) virus binding, through complex bond formation and electrostatic interaction, causing the inactivation of virus; (c) receptor blocking of the host cells; and (d) nanoparticle delivery of antivirals against viruses. 2 Several nanomaterials such as metal nanoparticles and graphene-based nanosheets have natural virucidal effects because of their specific physiochemical properties. Their mechanism of action comprises of a direct interaction with the envelope or capsid proteins of viruses to disrupt structural integrity of virus and inhibiting its infectivity.…”

“…Therefore, we review the current state of knowledge of the pharmacologic mechanisms of antiviral nanoparticles. From the literature, nanoparticle compositions that have shown antiviral activity include but are not limited to copper, alloys, and oxides, , other metal oxides including zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium oxide (TiO), iron oxide, and others, such as gold − and silver nanoparticles and those synthesized via biological means, nitrides, and other ceramic nanoparticles, sulfated and nonsulfated polysaccharides and other sulfated polymers including galactan, cellulose, polyethylenimine, chitosan/chitin, and others . These nanoparticles or modified polymers have shown activity against a wide variety of viruses including SARS-CoV-2, HIV, herpes simplex virus (HSV), vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), influenza (H1N1), human norovirus (HNV), hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV), Zika virus, Ebola, poliovirus, and others.…”