Frequent Cognitive Activity Compensates for Education Differences in Episodic Memory

Abstract

Objectives: To test the hypothesis that frequent participation in cognitive activities can moderate the effects of limited education on cognitive functioning. Design:A national study of adult development and aging, Midlife in the United States (MIDUS), with assessments conducted at the second wave of measurement in 2004-2006. Setting: Assessments were made over the telephone (cognitive measures) and in a mail questionnaire (demographic variables, measures of cognitive and physical activity, and self-rated health).Participants: A total of 3343 men and women between the ages of 32 and 84 with a mean age of 55.99. Measurements:The dependent variables were Episodic Memory (Immediate and Delayed Word List Recall) and Executive Functioning (Category Fluency, Backward Digit Span, Backward Counting Speed, Reasoning, and Attention Switching Speed). The independent variables were years of education and frequency of cognitive activity (reading, writing, doing word games or puzzles, and attending lectures). The covariates were age, sex, self-rated health, income, and frequency of physical activity. Results:The two cognitive measures were regressed on education, cognitive activity frequency, and their interaction, while controlling for the covariates. Education and cognitive activity were significantly correlated with both cognitive abilities. The interaction of education and cognitive activity was significant for episodic memory, but not for executive functioning. Conclusion:Those with lower education had lower cognitive functioning, but this was qualified by level of cognitive activity. For those with lower education, engaging frequently in cognitive activities showed significant compensatory benefits for episodic memory, which has promise for reducing social disparities in cognitive aging. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. Keywords NIH Public Access Author ManuscriptAm J Geriatr Psychiatry. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2011 January 1. OBJECTIVEEducation differences are a key source of social disparities and variability in cognitive functioning.(1) Higher levels of education are tied to better cognitive functioning throughout adulthood (2-5) and a lower risk for dementia.(6-12) One possible mechanism whereby the long term effects of higher education for cognition could be realized is that those with higher education have advantages and resources that allow them to engage more often in cognitively challenging activities. (13)(14)(15) There is evidence that engaging in frequent cognitive activities results in improved cognitive performance.(16-21) For example, in a recent rev...

Subjective Age and Cognitive Functioning: A 10-Year Prospective Study

“…In line with prior research, 12,34,35 two factors were assessed, episodic memory and executive functioning. They were computed on the basis of seven cognitive dimensions measured by the Brief Test of Adult Cognition by Telephone (BTACT).…”

“…12,34,35 This included two measures of episodic memory (immediate and delayed free recall of 15 words), working memory span (backward digit span-the highest span achieved in repeating strings of digits in reverse order), verbal fluency (the number of words produced from the category of animals in 60 seconds), inductive reasoning (completing a pattern in a series of five numbers), processing speed (the number of digits produced by counting backward from 100 in 30 seconds), and attention switching and inhibitory control (the Stop and Go Switch Task). 34,35 Following exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, 12 two cognitive factors were computedepisodic memory (immediate and delayed word recall) and executive functioning (all other measures), by averaging the variables loading on each factor and standardizing to z scores. 12 A prior validation study revealed the equivalence of phone testing and faceto-face testing for the BTACT, and shows that the tests used have acceptable psychometric properties in samples who vary widely in age, education, and socioeconomic background.…”

“…34,35 Following exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, 12 two cognitive factors were computedepisodic memory (immediate and delayed word recall) and executive functioning (all other measures), by averaging the variables loading on each factor and standardizing to z scores. 12 A prior validation study revealed the equivalence of phone testing and faceto-face testing for the BTACT, and shows that the tests used have acceptable psychometric properties in samples who vary widely in age, education, and socioeconomic background. 34,35 Telephone testing offers the opportunity to reach a range of individuals who vary in health status, physical mobility, educational attainment, including those who cannot be tested in person.…”

A multidimensional view of out-of-home behaviors in cognitively unimpaired older adults: examining differential effects of socio-demographic, cognitive, and health-related predictors

“…Concerning activity engagement, we expected, based on previous research findings (Hertzog 2009;Hertzog et al 2008), positive associations between cognitively demanding out-of-home activities and episodic memory (Lachman et al 2010), as well as between physically demanding activities, executive functions (Colcombe and Kramer 2003;Allmer 2005;Cotman and Berchtold 2002;Eggermont et al 2009) and working memory (Sibley and Beilock 2007).…”

Relação entre a competência funcional da memória episódica e os fatores associados à independência funcional de idosos saudáveis

“…Tal achado é corroborado pela literatura, em que, segundo alguns autores, a educação desempenha papel fundamental para uma memória bem-sucedida no envelhecimento. [32][33][34] Zahodne et al 32 descreveram um melhor desempenho em memória episódica de idosos com alta escolaridade, comparada com idosos de baixa escolaridade e mesma idade. No entanto, o declínio observado na memória episódica ao longo dos anos foi semelhante em ambos os grupos, sugerindo que a escolaridade pouco influencia no curso da memória no processo de envelhecimento.…”