Free Oestrone in Adipose Tissue and its Relation to Androstenone and Skatole in Entire Male Pigs

Zamaratskaia, Galia; Madej, Andrzej; Babol, J; Squires, E. J.; Lundström, Kerstin

doi:10.1111/j.1439-0531.2005.00573.x

Cited by 17 publications

(22 citation statements)

References 24 publications

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“…Examination of multiple regression relations showed that the levels of testicular hormones testosterone, estrone sulphate and free estrone in combination with testes and bulbo-urethral gland sizes were the best predictors of skatole in fat (Zamaratskaia et al, 2005d). The boar is known for its high amounts of estrogens (Claus and Hoffmann, 1980), which are produced in testicular Leydig cells (Raeside and Renaud, 1983;Mutembei et al, 2005) and are positively correlated to skatole levels Zamaratskaia et al, 2005c).…”

Section: Androstenone Skatole and Hormonal Status Of Animalsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Biochemical, nutritional and genetic effects on boar taint in entire male pigs

Zamaratskaia

Squires

2009

Animal

191

179

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Pork odour is to a great extent affected by the presence of malodorous compounds, mainly androstenone and skatole. The present review outlines the current state of knowledge about factors involved in the regulation of androstenone and skatole in entire male pigs. Androstenone is a pheromonal steroid synthesised in the testes and metabolised in the liver. Part of androstenone accumulates in adipose tissue causing a urine-like odour. Skatole is produced in the large intestine by bacterial degradation of tryptophan and metabolised by hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes and sulphotransferase. The un-metabolised part accumulates in adipose tissue, causing faecal-like odour. Androstenone levels are mostly determined by genetic factors and stage of puberty, whereas skatole levels in addition to genetic background and hormonal status of the pigs are also controlled by nutritional and environmental factors. To reduce the risk of tainted carcasses entering the market, male pigs are surgically castrated in many countries. However, entire males compared to castrates have superior production characteristics: higher growth rate, better feed efficiency and leaner carcasses. Additionally, animal welfare aspects are currently of particular importance in light of increasing consumers' concerns. Nutrition, hormonal status, genetic influence on boar taint compounds and the methods to develop genetic markers are discussed. Boar taint due to high levels of skatole and androstenone is moderately heritable and not all market weight entire males have boar taint; it should thus be possible to select for pigs that do not have boar taint. In these studies, it is critical to assess the steroidogenic potential of the pigs in order to separate late-maturing pigs from those with a low genetic potential for boar taint. A number of candidate genes for boar taint have been identified and work is continuing to develop genetic markers for low boar taint. More research is needed to clarify the factors involved in the development of boar taint and to develop additional methods to prevent the accumulation of high concentrations of skatole and androstenone in fat. This review proposes those areas requiring further research.

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Section: Androstenone Skatole and Hormonal Status Of Animalsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Biochemical, nutritional and genetic effects on boar taint in entire male pigs

Zamaratskaia

Squires

2009

Animal

191

179

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“…Androstenone is a natural steroid produced by the Leydig cells of the testis along with other sex steroids like estrogens and testosterone [5], but it is subsequently concentrated and converted in the salivary gland to an active sex pheromone. While estrogens are well known as important female sex hormones, they are also important controllers for the normal function of the adult male reproductive tract and male fertility (reviewed by Hess [6]) and serve as indicator of sexual maturity status in boars [7,8]. Therefore to identify genomic regions simultaneously affecting levels of boar taint and fertility related compounds, the sex hormones 17β-estradiol (one of the main estrogens), estrone sulphate (the reservoir for the active compound of 17β-estradiol) and testosterone (essential to maintain spermatogenesis and male fertility) [reviewed by 9] were included.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Large scale genome-wide association and LDLA mapping study identifies QTLs for boar taint and related sex steroids

et al. 2011

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BackgroundBoar taint is observed in a high proportion of uncastrated male pigs and is characterized by an unpleasant odor/flavor in cooked meat, primarily caused by elevated levels of androstenone and skatole. Androstenone is a steroid produced in the testis in parallel with biosynthesis of other sex steroids like testosterone and estrogens. This represents a challenge when performing selection against androstenone in breeding programs, without simultaneously decreasing levels of other steroids. The aim of this study was to use high-density genome wide association (GWA) in combination with linkage disequilibrium-linkage analysis (LDLA) to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with boar taint compounds and related sex steroids in commercial Landrace (n = 1,251) and Duroc (n = 918) breeds.ResultsAltogether, 14 genome wide significant (GWS) QTL regions for androstenone in subcutaneous fat were obtained from the LDLA study in Landrace and 14 GWS QTL regions in Duroc. LDLA analysis revealed that 7 of these QTL regions, located on SSC 1, 2, 3, 7 and 15, were obtained in both breeds. All 14 GWS androstenone QTLs in Landrace are also affecting the estrogens at chromosome wise significance (CWS) or GWS levels, while in Duroc, 3 of the 14 QTLs affect androstenone without affecting any of the estrogens. For skatole, 10 and 4 QTLs were GWS in the LDLA analysis for Landrace and Duroc respectively, with 4 of these detected in both breeds. The GWS QTLs for skatole obtained by LDLA are located at SSC 1, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13 and 14.ConclusionThis is the first report applying the Porcine 60 K SNP array for simultaneous analysis of boar taint compounds and related sex hormones, using both GWA and LDLA approaches. Several QTLs are involved in regulation of androstenone and skatole, and most of the QTLs for androstenone are also affecting the levels of estrogens. Seven QTLs for androstenone were detected in one breed and confirmed in the other, i.e. in an independent sample, although the majority of QTLs are breed specific. Most QTLs for skatole do not negatively affect other sex hormones and should be easier to implement into the breeding scheme.

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“…Leydig cells produce not only androgens, but also large amounts of oestrogen, mostly as E 1 S, which is thought to play a role in the regulation of accessory sex glands in the boar (Raeside et al, 1999;Zamaratskaia et al, 2005b). Zamaratskaia et al (2005a) have suggested that due to concomitant increases in skatole and oestrone (E 1 ), it is possible that E 1 is involved in the regulation of skatole in fat rather than testosterone.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Zamaratskaia et al (2005a) have suggested that due to concomitant increases in skatole and oestrone (E 1 ), it is possible that E 1 is involved in the regulation of skatole in fat rather than testosterone. Furthermore, E 1 is known to undergo enterohepatic circulation and plasma E 1 S is correlated with the accumulation of AND in fat (Babol et al, 1999;Zamaratskaia et al, 2005b;Chen et al, 2007). In this study, we measured the effects of AC and Tween treatments on plasma levels of E 1 S as an initial estimate for their potential effects on enterohepatic circulation.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Efficacy of non-nutritive sorbent materials as intestinal-binding agents for the control of boar taint

Jen

Squires

2011

Animal

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In many countries, male pigs are castrated to prevent boar taint, but this practice raises concerns about animal welfare and reduces the production efficiency of pork. The objective of this study was to develop dietary manipulations to prevent boar taint. We evaluated the effectiveness of adding activated carbon (AC) or Tween-60 (Tween; polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate) to pig finishing diets to reduce levels of androstenone (AND) and skatole in plasma and fat of entire male pigs. Boars (159 6 2 days of age at the start of the experiment) were fed diets supplemented with either 5% AC or 5% Tween for 28 days followed by either 14 or 28 days of recovery. Plasma samples were collected at experimental days 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 42 and 56, and backfat biopsies were taken at experimental days 0, 28, 42 and 56. Feeding AC significantly (P , 0.05) reduced the levels of AND in plasma by day 28 compared to day 0 and by day 42 in fat compared to day 0. AC treatment also decreased levels of oestrone sulphate (E 1 S) in plasma by day 7 compared to day 0. Treatment with Tween significantly decreased (P , 0.05) the levels of plasma AND by day 28 from levels at day 0. Tween treatment did not significantly affect levels of fat AND or plasma E 1 S compared to day 0; however, fat AND levels decreased between days 28 and 42 following treatment with Tween (P , 0.05). Levels of plasma E 1 S, plasma AND and fat AND for control boars remained constant throughout the experiment. Skatole plasma concentrations were very low and did not vary significantly (P . 0.05) from day 0 for any treatment, but fat skatole levels decreased by day 42 in the Tween treatment group. Importantly, there was no difference in growth rate between the control and experimental groups. We conclude that adding AC or Tween to finishing diets for boars can reduce the levels of plasma and fat AND, but further work is needed to confirm the effects of these treatments on reducing fat skatole levels.

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Free Oestrone in Adipose Tissue and its Relation to Androstenone and Skatole in Entire Male Pigs

Cited by 17 publications

References 24 publications

Biochemical, nutritional and genetic effects on boar taint in entire male pigs

Biochemical, nutritional and genetic effects on boar taint in entire male pigs

Large scale genome-wide association and LDLA mapping study identifies QTLs for boar taint and related sex steroids

Efficacy of non-nutritive sorbent materials as intestinal-binding agents for the control of boar taint

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