Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency*

Abstract

This paper presents a general strain theory of crime and delinquency that is capable of overcoming the criticisms of previous strain theories. In the first section, strain theory is distinguished from social control and differential association/social learning theory. In the second section, the three major types of strain are described: (1) strain as the actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals, (2) strain as the actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli, and (3) strain as the actual or anticipated presentation of negatively valued stimuli. In the third section, guidelines for the measurement of strain are presented. And in the fourth section, the major adaptations to strain are described, and those factors influencing the choice of delinquent versus nondelinquent adaptations are discussed.

Problem coping skills, psychosocial adversities and mental health problems in children and adolescents as predictors of criminal outcomes in young adulthood

“…If the problems persist, in the long run avoidant coping will lead to increased rather than reduced stress levels. The inability or failure to manage stress and negative affects in a socially accepted way may lead to illegitimate modes of adaptation including delinquent behaviour [2,25]. Furthermore, high chronic stress levels eliciting symptoms of irritable mood has been identified as a risk factor for both affective disorders [52] and impulsive aggression [6].…”

“…Sociological theories have conceptualized crime as a response to problems involving frustration and adverse social environments [2]. Individuals who are able to cope with socio-emotional problems by seeking help, talking to others and actively looking for solutions will be more successful at school, at work and with social relationships.…”

Legal Socialization of Children and Adolescents

“…It communicates to participants directly and vicariously to people in contact with other participants in legal interactions that laws are both legitimate and moral. Fair treatment also may reduce feelings of anger that lead to rule breaking (Agnew, 1992(Agnew, , 1994Sherman, 1993). It strengthens ties to the law, a pivotal antecedent of delinquency (Hirschi, 1969).…”

Crime among irregular immigrants and the influence of internal border control

“…While the threat of exclusion from the national territory may depress suspect rates via the criminological mechanism of deterrence and social control, exclusion from the labour market and public provisions seems to increase the likelihood of certain criminal responses via the criminological mechanism of strain. The latter type of internal control incites certain criminal responses as it increases the likelihood of migrants being unable to support themselves in conventional ways [1,47]. This is an ideal-typical distinction: internal control of the first type may activate mechanisms that tend to be associated with the second type.…”

“…Illegal residence was believed to be a threat to the welfare state, which had come under much financial pressure in the 1980s, and the diminishing border controls within the Schengen area aggravated these concerns. 1 In 1991, the government barred the use of social security numbers for irregular immigrants, which severely limited their opportunities to work in the formal labour market [60]. Later, in 1998, the 'Linking Act' was implemented, which excluded irregular immigrants from a wide array of public services, including welfare, public housing, education, and (most) health care.…”