Fortified farms and defended villages of Late Roman and Late Antique Africa

Abstract

Les fermes fortifiées et les autres sites pareillement défendus marquaient les paysages de l'Afrique du Nord au cours de l'Antiquité Tardive. Leur présence a été relevée dans toutes les provinces romaines de l'Afrique du Nord, même dans les zones au-delà des frontières, comme le coeur de la contrée des Garamantes dans le Fezzan (Sud-Ouest de la Libye). Huit types de fortifications sont ici définis afin de servir de base à un réexamen de la diffusion des fortifications rurales publiées à la suite des principales prospections archéologiques conduites dans ces régions. On constate de nettes prédominances régionales (par exemple les villages fortifiés en Numidie, les temples et mausolées convertis en maisons carrées dans la steppe tunisienne et les églises fortifiées en Cyrénaïque). Toutefois, dans presque tous les régions, les sites fortifiés jouent un rôle essentiel dans le hiérarchie des établissements . En Tripolitaine et au Fezzan, par exemple, ces sites fortifiés sont majoritaires. Les constructions le plus précoces sont datées du 2e siècle après J.-C. et leur occupation a continué jusqu'à l'époque islamique, mais, en Libye au moins, le pic des constructions se situe au cours du 4e siècle. Bien que certains sites fortifiés s'inspirent de modèles militaires, on soutient l'hypothèse que loin d'être stimulé par l'armée romaine, ce phénomène de protection doit être interprété dans un contexte de faiblesse de l'autorité centrale et d'essor de l'indépendance régionale.Fortified farms and other fortified sites were a key component of the Late Antique landscapes of North Africa. Their presence has been noted in all the Roman provinces in North Africa and in areas beyond the frontier such as the Garamantian heartlands of Fazzan (south-west Libya). Eight broad morphological types are proposed and are the basis for a review of the distribution of rural fortifications from all major archaeological surveys. There are strong regional preferences (e.g. fortified villages in Numidia, temples and mausolea converted into block houses in the Tunisian steppe and fortified churches in Cyrenaica). However, in almost all areas fortified sites were important elements in the settlement hierarchy and in Tripolitania and Fazzan, for instance, they were the dominant settlement form. The earliest constructions have been dated to the 2nd century AD and their development continued into the Islamic period, but. In Libya at least, there was a peak in construction in the 4th century. Although some of the types of fortified site seem to follow military models, It is suggested that rather than simple emulation of the Roman army, these fortifications should be seen in the context of a weakening central authority and growing regional independence.

GIS of thechoraof Cyrene: fortifications and Christian buildings in Late Antiquity

“…Most of the studies in this area, in general mainly looking at the Classical period, have shown only marginal interest for the later fortifications, contrary to what happened in Tripolitania (Di Vita 1964, 65–98; Leone 2007, 187–98; Munzi 2010, 57–62; Sjöström 1993, in particular 81–85; Welsby 1992); however, some useful suggestions, still valid today, have been advanced by Stucchi (1975), by Goodchild (1966a) and, more recently, by Mattingly, Sterry and Leitch (Mattingly et al 2013), and Catani (Catani 2010; Bennet et al 2008; Benthaer and Buzaian 2010; Buzaian 2009). This paper, therefore, intends to integrate a review of published works with data coming from the survey project of the Archaeological Mission of Chieti University (under the direction of Prof. Oliva Menozzi) 2 .…”

“…Finally, among the defensive structures in Cyrenaica, ‘fortified’ churches should also be mentioned. Much has been written on these structures and their defensive functions in the past, and the different proposals advanced in the 1950s and 1960s are still valid today (Bonacasa Carra 1998, 68–72; Mattingly et al 2013, 177). Stucchi in his study on Cyrenaican architecture proposed that the fortifying structures for these buildings were probably mostly restoration and consolidation works, following the seismic damage or structural collapse suffered by these buildings (Stucchi 1975, 430–32).…”

“…It should also be borne in mind that, in view of the average size of rural settlements, which in most cases were related to these places of worship, the churches were the largest architectural structures that with few changes could in fact become forts. In a context such as Cyrenaica, where since the Roman age the main assailants were the Berber tribes and populations living in the desert zone, this system could certainly offer the population a safe defence in case of danger (Goodchild 1976, 151; Mattingly et al 2013, 177). One example that could certainly offer a major contribution to understanding this specific aspect is the basilica of Berteleis (Figure 7), located along the road that leads from Cyrene to Apollonia on the second terrace of the plateau in an area mostly dedicated to farming and in close proximity to rock-cut tombs dating to the Hellenistic age.…”

The Lepcitanian landscape across the ages: the survey between Ras el-Mergheb and Ras el-Hammam (2007, 2009, 2013)

“…In this survey sample, 24 gsur were documented. These gsur can be characterised by a quadrangular plan with a single entrance and usually an inner courtyard (for different types of these structures, see Mattingly et al 2013). They have been built using the opus quadratum technique, sometimes using smaller, regular stones; the reuse of ancient material was common.…”

Editor's introduction

“…The last comprehensive study looking at fortifications and forts in North Africa was published by Denys Pringle in 1981 and, since then, there has been little work on the historical importance and geographical location of forts across the different regions of North Africa. Some recent articles have presented the typology of these forts (see, for instance, Mattingly et al 2013) and, within this context, various papers offer some new insights, historical and political, into the development of fortifications, primarily in Libya.…”