Formation of shatter cones in MEMIN impact experiments

Associations between impact structures and meteorite occurrences are rare and restricted to very young structures. Meteorite fragments are often disrupted in the atmosphere, and in most cases, meteorite falls that have been decelerated by atmospheric drag do not form a crater. Furthermore, meteorites are rapidly weathered. In this context, the finding of shatter cones in Jurassic marly limestone in the same location as a recent (105 ± 40 ka) iron meteorite fall near the village of Agoudal (High Atlas Mountains, Morocco) is enigmatic. The shatter cones are the only piece of evidence of a meteorite impact in the area. The overlap of a meteorite strewn field with the area of occurrence of shatter cones led previous researchers to consider that the meteorite fall was responsible for the formation of shatter cones in the context of formation of one or several small (<100 m) impact craters that had since been eroded. Shatter cones are generally not reported in association with subkilometer‐diameter impact craters. Here, we present new field observations and an analysis of the distribution and characteristics of shatter cones, breccia, and meteorites in the Agoudal area. Evidence for local deformation not related to the structural High Atlas tectonics has been observed, such as a vertical to overturned stratum trending N150‐N160. New outcrops with exposures of shatter cones are reported and extend the previously known area of occurrence. The area of in situ shatter cones (~0.15 km2) and the strewn field of meteorites are distinct, although they show some overlap. The alleged impact breccia is revealed as calcrete formations. No evidence for a genetic relationship between the shatter cones and the meteorites can be inferred from field observations. The extent of the area where in situ shatter cones and macrodeformation not corresponding to Atlas tectonic deformation are observed suggest that the original diameter of an impact structure could have been between at least 1–3 km. For typical erosion rates in the Atlas region (~0.08 cm yr−1), the period of time required for the erosion of such a structure (1.25–3.75 Ma) is much larger than the age of the meteorite fall. This line of reasoning excludes a genetic link between the shatter cones and the meteorite fall and indicates that the observed shatter cones belong to an ancient impact structure that has been almost entirely eroded.

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 74%

The Agoudal (High Atlas Mountains, Morocco) shatter cone conundrum: A recent meteorite fall onto the remnant of an impact site

Aoudjehane

Kerni

Reimold

et al. 2016

“…; Schneider and Wagner ; Kenkmann et al. ; Wilk and Kenkmann , , ). The intensities of the shock waves associated with the explosion experiments (2–6 GPa) are comparable with estimated shock levels in zones of shatter cone occurrences in natural impact structures (from 2 to 30 GPa, e.g., Gibson and Reimold ).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The current state of knowledge about shatter cones: Introduction to the special issue

Baratoux

Reimold

2016

Shatter cones are a fracture phenomenon that is exclusively associated with shock metamorphism and has also been produced in the laboratory in several shock experiments. The occurrence of shatter cones is the only accepted meso‐ to macroscopic recognition criterion for impact structures. Shatter cones exhibit a number of geometric characteristics (orientation, apical angles, striation angles, sizes) that can be best described as varied, from case to case. Possible links between geometric properties with impact or crater parameters have remained controversial and the lack of understanding of the mechanism of formation of shatter cones does not offer a physical framework to discuss or understand them. A database of shatter cone occurrences has been produced for this introduction paper to the special issue of Meteoritics and Planetary Science on shatter cones. Distribution of shatter cones with respect to crater size and lithology suggests that shatter cones do not occur in impact craters less than a few kilometers in diameter, with a few, currently questionable exceptions. All pertinent hypotheses of formation are presented and discussed. Several may be discarded in light of the most recent observations. The branching fracture mechanism and the interference models proposed, respectively, by Sagy et al. (2002) and Baratoux and Melosh (2003) require further evaluation. New observations, experiments, or theoretical considerations presented in this special issue promise an important step forward, based on a renewed effort to resolve the enigmatic origin of these important features.

“…Shatter cones were also successfully formed in MEMIN impact experiments in different target lithologies (Kenkmann et al. ; Wilk and Kenkmann ).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Formation of shatter cones by symmetric fracture bifurcation: Phenomenological modeling and validation

Kenkmann

Hergarten

Kuhn

et al. 2016

Several models of shatter cone formation require a heterogeneity at the cone apex of high impedance mismatch to the surrounding bulk rock. This heterogeneity is the source of spherically expanding waves that interact with the planar shock front or the following release wave. While these models are capable of explaining the overall conical shape of shatter cones, they are not capable of explaining the subcone structure and the diverging and branching striations that characterize the surface of shatter cones and lead to the so‐called horse‐tailing effect. Here, we use the hierarchical arrangement of subcone ridges of shatter cone surfaces as key for understanding their formation. Tracing a single subcone ridge from its apex downward reveals that each ridge branches after some distance into two symmetrically equivalent subcone ridges. This pattern is repeated to form new branches. We propose that subcone ridges represent convex‐curved fracture surfaces and their intersection corresponds to the bifurcation axis. The characteristic diverging striations are interpreted as the intersection lineations delimiting each subcone. Multiple symmetric crack branching is the result of rapid fracture propagation that may approach the Raleigh wave speed. We present a phenomenological model that fully constructs the shatter cone geometry to any order. The overall cone geometry including apex angle of the enveloping cone and the degree of concavity (horse‐tailing) is largely governed by the convexity of the subcone ridges. Straight cones of various apical angles, constant slope, and constant bifurcation angles form if the subcone convexity is low (30°). Increasing subcone convexity leads to a stronger horse‐tailing effect and the bifurcation angles increase with increasing distance from the enveloping cone apex. The model predicts possible triples of enveloping cone angle, bifurcation angle, and subcone angle. Measurements of these quantities on four shatter cones from different impact structures and lithologies agree well with model predictions.