Formation, Antibiotic Resistance, and Control Strategies of Staphylococcus epidermidis Biofilm

Abstract

Staphylococcus epidermidis, member of the group of coagulase-negative staphylococci, belongs to an opportunistic pathogen. It is reported that the major pathogenicity of S. epidermidis is attributed to its biofilm formed on the surface of infected tissues, which enhances bacterial resistance to antibiotics. Thus, how to inhibit biofilm formation and screening biofilm inhibitors will have great value in reducing bacterial drug-resistance, which is beneficial to prevent and treat biofilmassociated infections. In this chapter, we present the current knowledge on formation, antibiotic resistance, and control strategies of S. epidermidis biofilm. First, biofilm formation in S. epidermidis, including factors involved in different phases in the process of biofilm, is analyzed. Second, the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in S. epidermidis biofilms, such as poor antibiotic penetration, slow growth, and formation of persister cells, are introduced. Finally, control strategies to S. epidermidis biofilm formation are provided.

An Explorative Review on Advanced Approaches to Overcome Bacterial Resistance by Curbing Bacterial Biofilm Formation

“… [ 152 , 158–164 ] Gram-positive, facultative Anaerobic Staphylococcus aureus Mastitis Chronic Endometritis-associated infections Laryngitis Pharyngitis Catheters-associated infections (eg, intravenous catheters, urinary catheters, dialysis catheters) Infections associated with implanted medical devices (eg, pacemakers, joint prostheses, and fluid shunts) Antibiofilm surfaces: Anti-adhesion agents (eg, polyethylene glycol (PEG) coating Antifoulants (coatings using paints containing metal nanoparticles) aPDT Laser Shock waves (LSW) Antimicrobial peptides Enzymes Phage therapy Combinatory therapy, ie, ultrasound and disinfectants, using multiple antibiotics. [ 152 , 154 , 165 , 166 ] S. epidermidis Medically implanted devices infections Skin and soft tissue infections Bone and muscle infections Lung infections Bloodstream infections QS-inhibitors (eg, thiophenones and furanones) EPS dispersion agents (eg, ß-glucosidase, N -acetylcysteine; NAC) Antibiofilm surfaces: Anti-adhesion agents (PEG coating) Antifoulants (metal nanoparticles-containing paints) Combinatory therapy, eg, nanotechnology and aPDT, antimicrobial photothermal therapy (aPTT) [ 157 , 159 , 161–163 , 165 , 167 , 168 ] Streptococcus pneumoniae Colonization of the nasopharynx leads to otitis media Chronic Endometritis associated infections Rhinosinusitis Laryngitis Pharyngitis Nanotechnology (eg, Zinc oxide nanoparticles) Inhibition by small molecules (eg, Quercetin, DNA adenine methyltransferase Inhibitor, and Pyrimidinedione) [ 152 , 169–171 ] …”

Biofilm Formation by Staphylococcus epidermidis and Its Inhibition Using Carvacrol, 2-Aminobenzemidazole, and 3-Indole Acetonitrile

“… 5 Various techniques are accessible to detect biofilm formation by S. epidermidis including the tube method, 10 Congo red agar (CRA) method, 11 , 12 tissue culture plate (TCP) method, 13 bioluminescence test, and light or fluorescence microscopic methods. 14 The biofilm formation by certain pathogenic bacteria contributes toward their multiple drug resistance, 15 and thus, the treatment and management particularly of implant infections become difficult. Therefore, non-antimicrobial compounds having adequate antibiofilm potential are being investigated.…”