Forgotten spaces: How reliability, affordability and engagement shape the outcomes of last-mile electrification in Chocó, Colombia

Abstract

A key global challenge is the provision of access to modern energy services to all. Indicators such as national electrification rates can mask significant inadequacies in supply, while delivering electricity for last-mile communities involves particular challenges. This paper presents a timely and important contribution by employing a novel mixed methods approach to understand the process and impacts of electrification in Chocó, a 'forgotten space' within Colombia. Chocó is a densely forested, postconflict region that is characterised by low socioeconomic indicators. The paper examines the extent to which the benefits of electricity access have been realised for five villages in the municipality of Bahia Solano. A longitudinal study including surveys, interviews and a classification of households with the World Bank's Multi-Tier Framework provides insights into household energy use, expenditure and outcomes of the electrification process. Using these findings to define future demand scenarios, an energy system optimisation model was used to design a renewable micro-grid for the study villages revealing that distributed renewable energy systems can provide a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to grid extension. The research shows that the benefits of electrification cannot be assumed, particularly where programmes have a narrow focus on energy infrastructure alone. The delivery of electricity access is not a one-step intervention. It must involve ongoing engagement and consider the social, environmental, economic and political contexts in which people live. Only through this more grounded approach will the benefits of energy for sustainable development be realised.

Energy access and pandemic-resilient livelihoods: The role of solar energy safety nets

“…Energy poverty is defined as a constraint in access and affordability of modern forms of energy, especially electricity [9] . About 85 percent of 789 million people in non-electrified households live in rural areas [10] and are known as the “last mile” of universal energy access [11] , [12] . The last mile energy poor are geographically located in remote and difficult-to-reach areas without access to technology and essential infrastructure services.…”

Sustainability Evaluation of Rural Electrification in Cuba: From Fossil Fuels to Modular Photovoltaic Systems: Case Studies from Sancti Spiritus Province

“…At a regional scale, Eras-Almeida et al [27] examine successful solar home systems experiences in Bolivia, Mexico, and Peru to identify market mechanisms that promote such technology. Tomei et al [28] examine the impact of electrification projects in Colombia in order to propose PV-based solutions for non-electrified villages and achieve sustainable development. Bertheau [29] assess the impact of a PV-based system into the socioeconomic development of an island in the Philippines.…”

Lessons from last mile electrification in Colombia: Examining the policy framework and outcomes for sustainability

“…Providing electricity to the last mile remains a challenge for any country; for example, the Philippines face difficulties electrifying a set of heterogeneous islands [8], while for some villages in India the challenge depends on how sparsely houses are spread [9]. In Colombia, which is the focus of this paper, last mile communities are in remote and hard-to-reach places, typically characterised by low incomes [10][11][12]. Many last mile communities were also affected by Colombia's 50-year civil conflict, which has left them politically and economically isolated.Although Colombia has made a concerted effort to expand access to electricity, achieving full electrification remains a challenge [13][14][15].…”

“…In Colombia, 'off-grid' is typically associated with the peripheries of the country, rather than the economic and political centres; however, there remain communities without access to electricity that are located within the central grid electrified zone. Grid expansion to these communities is unlikely, which means distributed off-grid solutions will need to be found [7][8][9]12].Since 2015, the Colombian government has sought to create an enabling environment for non-conventional renewable energy technologies, i.e. excluding big hydro projects, through Law 1715 (2014).…”

“…Demand for energy in off-grid communities is typically low and many households have low and variable incomes, which makes financing electrification projects challenging [20]. Social challenges relate to the ethnic, cultural and institutional diversity of communities in off-grid areas, as well as to Colombia's ongoing civil conflict, which has contributed to many areas being characterized by an absence of the state [12,21]. Finally, many of these remote communities reside in protected areas, such as the Amazon and Chocó, which poses environmental restrictions on electrification [18,22].…”