Foraging and Habitat Specialization by Female Leopards (Panthera pardus) in the Waterberg Mountains of South Africa

Abstract

Carnivores that persist outside of protected areas are often deemed to have highly adaptable and generalist foraging strategies. Using data from three GPS-collared female leopards (Panthera pardus) and over an eight-month period, we attempted to establish whether leopards in a mountainous landscape display preferential behaviour (i.e. specialist) or not (i.e. generalist). We investigated whether female leopards used habitats in accordance with availability for both hunting and regular activities, and whether female leopards demonstrated preference for a particular prey species. Finally, we assessed tree caching behaviour and discuss leopard spatial dynamics in the context of superior competitors, such as lions (Panthera leo). Female leopards demonstrated selection for certain prey species. Mixed closed woodland (greatest vegetation density; lowest prey density) and tall open woodland (greatest vegetation biomass; high prey density) were preferred over other habitats. Female leopards on Welgevonden cached significantly larger prey species in trees. Our results suggest that female leopards in this landscape are selecting habitats -enabling the exploitation of certain ecological features -that balance energy expenditure against the likelihood of capturing prey in an attempt to maximize efficiency, whilst reducing inter-specific competition. We suggest that female leopards are limited in their foraging ability as a result of interference competition by superior species like lions, which in turn, affects their choice of prey. These findings highlight the potential importance of numerous ecological, spatio-temporal, and anthropogenic factors that influence leopard behaviour, and therefore have significant implications for leopard persistence and conservation.

Sex‐specific dietary specialization in a terrestrial apex predator, the leopard, revealed by stable isotope analysis

“…This diversity might also be linked to whether females are accompanied by cubs, which might require more flexibility in the choice of prey species, also depending on the age of the cubs. Furthermore, Pitman and colleagues suggested that female leopards may be limited in their foraging ability due to possible interactions with larger predator species, such as lions ( Panthera leo ) (Pitman et al ., ,b).…”

“…Nevertheless, our results are in line with previous studies that suggest larger leopards, i.e. males, hunt larger prey species more effectively (Bothma & Le Riche, ; Stander et al ., ; Bothma & Coertze, ) and are probably also more successful in defending their prey against kleptoparasites (Pitman et al ., ,b). Overall, large individuals seem to be less dependent on hunting smaller prey.…”

The importance of refugia, ecological traps and scale for large carnivore management

“…In Limpopo, human-mediated leopard mortality was greatest in prime leopard habitat. Leopard are capable of distinguishing and selecting high-quality habitats (Balme et al 2007;Pitman et al 2013), a trait which is likely maladaptive in Limpopo due to the fitness costs associated with such habitat (Delibes et al 2001). African wild dogs (Lycoan pictus) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, similarly selected high-quality habitat within the buffer zone of the protected area, thereby increasing their risk of human-induced mortality (van der Meer et al 2014).…”

“…This extensive distribution, together with their wide-ranging movements, dictate that management of leopards occurs at large spatial scales. Despite their ubiquity, leopards are habitat selective (Balme et al 2007;Pitman et al 2013), which may lead to maladaptive behaviour in human affected landscapes. Like most large carnivores, leopards are frequently implicated in conflict centered around livestock and game depredation (Kissui 2008;Thorn et al 2013), often leading to retaliatory killing of putative problem individuals (Hunter et al 2013;Thorn et al 2013).…”

Vegetation Type Influences Livestock Predation by Leopards: Implications for Conservation in Agro-Ecosystems

“…This reflects leopards' preference for densely vegetated areas to hunt (e.g. Bailey, 1993;Balme, Hunter & Slotow, 2007;Pitman, Kilian, Ramsay & Swanepoel, 2013), and water courses and valley bottoms as low-cost movement pathways within rugged mountainous areas (McManus, 2009). We suggest that these low laying, densely vegetated areas may serve as major routes for leopards to move onto neighbouring areas with a low probability of detection by humans and prey alike.…”