Flies and Flowers II: Floral Attractants and Rewards

Abstract

This paper comprises Part II of a review of flower visitation and pollination by Diptera (myiophily or myophily). While Part I examined taxonomic diversity of anthophilous flies, here we consider the rewards and attractants used by flowers to procure visits by flies, and their importance in the lives of flies. Food rewards such as pollen and nectar are the primary reasons for flower visits, but there is also a diversity of non-nutritive rewards such as brood sites, shelter, and places of congregation. Floral attractants are the visual and chemical cues used by Diptera to locate flowers and the rewards that they offer, and we show how they act to increase the probability of floral visitation. Lastly, we discuss the various ways in which flowers manipulate the behaviour of flies, deceiving them to visit flowers that do not provide the advertised reward, and how some flies illegitimately remove floral rewards without causing pollination. Our review demonstrates that myiophily is a syndrome corresponding to elements of anatomical, behavioural and physiological adaptations of flower-visiting Diptera. The bewildering diversity of anthophilous Diptera and of the floral attractants and rewards to which they respond allows for only broad generalizations on myiophily and points to the need for more investigation. Ecological relationships between flies and flowers are critical to the survival of each group in many habitats. We require greater understanding of the significance of flies in pollination, especially in the face of recent pollinator declines.

Road mortality potentially responsible for billions of pollinating insect deaths annually

“…Furthermore, our findings mirror that of Seibert and Conover (1991) who also described the three most common insect Orders killed by traffic as Lepidopterans, Hymenopterans, and Dipterans. Lepidopterans and most Hymenopterans are considered pollinators, and about 32.5 % of Dipterans are pollinators (Larson et al 2001;Kearns 2001); however, the Dipterans we collected consisted of mostly horse flies (Tabanidae; Larson et al 2001), blow flies (Calliphoridae; Larson et al 2001), and bibionid flies (Bibionidae ;Free 1993;Fitzgerald 2005;Larson et al 2001;Woodcock et al 2014), all of which include known pollinators. Because the three most common Orders of insects killed in our study were pollinators, and because they were killed in high numbers, there is the potential for roads and traffic to be a substantial threat to insect pollinator populations.…”

Evaluations of dual attractant toxic sugar baits for surveillance and control of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in Florida

“…Insects have developed highly adaptive sensory systems of taste and smell to locate both sugar and host sources [29, 33, 35]. Sugar feeding occurs during the early onset of a female mosquito’s life and follows a cyclic pattern with blood feeding behaviors, while male mosquitoes only take sugar meals [8].…”

Floral Volatiles in a Sapromyiophilous Plant and Their Importance in Attracting House Fly Pollinators

“…The different scent composition of the samples may be related to different temperature conditions between May 2013 (21°C) and May 2014 (25°C), as was shown to be the case in a recent study by Farré-Armengol et al (2014), where plants changed floral scent emissions in relation to temperature. In particular, these authors underline that an increase in temperature (1-5°C) augments the rates of floral terpenoid emission, According to Woodcock et al (2014), fly-pollinated flowers emit nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds that attract Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, and Muscidae, all families involved in pollination of P. laevigata. However, while nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds are reported in the literature in connection with deceitful attraction and in the syndrome of sapromyiophily (Woodcock et al 2014), only DMTS has been tested singly in behavioral experiments to confirm its biological activity.…”

“…In particular, these authors underline that an increase in temperature (1-5°C) augments the rates of floral terpenoid emission, According to Woodcock et al (2014), fly-pollinated flowers emit nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds that attract Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, and Muscidae, all families involved in pollination of P. laevigata. However, while nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds are reported in the literature in connection with deceitful attraction and in the syndrome of sapromyiophily (Woodcock et al 2014), only DMTS has been tested singly in behavioral experiments to confirm its biological activity. It is highly attractive to calliphorid flies (Zito et al 2014).…”

“…It also is pollinated by eleven dipteran species belonging to Tephritidae, Scathophagidae, Anthomyiidae, Muscidae, Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, and Rhinophoridae (Pisciotta et al 2011). Among the other families involved in pollinator attraction (Pisciotta et al 2011), Anthomyiidae and Tephritidae are reported as being attracted by terpenoids (El-Sayed 2014; Woodcock et al 2014), but no data are available for Scathophagidae and Rhinophoridae. Overall, other compounds produced by P. laevigata may function as attractants for other visitors of P. laevigata.…”