Flexible Working Hours, Health, and Well-Being in Europe: Some Considerations from a SALTSA Project

Abstract

The project brought together researchers from 9 EU-Countries and resulted in a number of actions, in particular the following: (a) There is an urgent need of defining the concept of flexible working hours, since it has been used in many different and even counterintuitive ways; the most obvious distinction is where the influence over the working hours lies, that is between the "company-based flexibility" and the "individual-oriented flexibility"; (b) The review of the Legislation in force in the 15 European countries shows that the regulation of working times is quite extensive and covers (Council Directive 93/104/EC) almost all the various arrangements of working hours (i.e., part-time, overtime, shift, and night work), but fails to provide for flexibility; (c) According to the data of the Third EU Survey on Working Conditions, longer and "irregular" working hours are in general linked to lower levels of health and well-being; moreover, low (individual) flexibility and high variability of working hours (i.e., company-based flexibility) were consistently associated with poor health and well-being, while low variability combined with high autonomy showed positive effects; (d) Six substudies from different countries demonstrated that flexible working hours vary according to country, economic sector, social status, and gender; overtime is the most frequent form of company-based flexibility but has negative effects on stress, sleep, and social and mental health; individual flexibility alleviates the negative effects of the company-based flexibility on subjective health, safety, and social well-being; (e) The literature review was able to list more than 1,000 references, but it was striking that most of these documents were mainly argumentative with very little empirical data. Thus, one may conclude that there is a large-scale intervention ongoing in our society with almost completely unknown and uncontrolled effects. Consequently, there is a strong need for systematic research and well-controlled actions in order to examine in detail what flexible working hours are considered, what and where are their positive effects, in particular, as concerns autonomy, and what regulation seem most reasonable.

Workhours in relation to work stress, recovery and health

“…Company-based flexibility in workhours refers to the needs of employers to extend, modify, or reduce workhours according to client and production needs (8). Shift work and paid overtime, as well as part-time and weekend work, are common forms of company-based flexibility.…”

“…While company-and customer-oriented flexibility has clearly been on the rise, optional overtime has also become common in many countries due to the increased commitment and independence of skilled workers (5). In addition to the trends in company-based flexibility, individual flexibility in workhours and employee worktime control has also become common (8)(9)(10). Unlike company-based flexibility in worktime, individual flexibility meets the needs of employees, providing them with autonomy regarding, for example, starting and ending times, breaks, days off, vacations, and the number of workhours (8).…”

“…In addition to the trends in company-based flexibility, individual flexibility in workhours and employee worktime control has also become common (8)(9)(10). Unlike company-based flexibility in worktime, individual flexibility meets the needs of employees, providing them with autonomy regarding, for example, starting and ending times, breaks, days off, vacations, and the number of workhours (8). Employee worktime control is close to individual flexibility and can be defined as an employee's possibilities to control the duration, position, and distribution of his or her worktime, that is, autonomy with regard to worktime (9).…”

Western lifestyle and immunopathology of multiple sclerosis

“…Shift work is work on a schedule outside of the traditional working hours from 9 am to 5 pm for 5 days a week. In Europe, it is estimated that only 24% of work force follows the classical working schedule 158. Shift work can be permanent or rotating, with or without night shifts.…”

Periodic self-rostering in shift work: correspondence between objective work hours, work hour preferences (personal fit), and work schedule satisfaction

“…In empirical studies, WTC has been operationalized as an index of seven items, of which one is related to influence over scheduling and the other six items cover aspects of flexi-time, breaks, short time leave, and vacation (9). Most of the studies indicate that high WTC is beneficial for self-rated health, buffers against stress, and reduces psychological distress, work-family conflicts, rates of sickness absence, and early retirement due to disability pension (9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15).…”