Flavonoid Properties in Plant Families Synthesizing Betalain Pigments (Review)

Abstract

The anthocyanin pigments are contained in the flowers, fruits, leaves and roots of almost plant species. On the other hand, distribution of the betacyanins are limited in eight families of the order Caryophyllales, i.e. Aizoaceae, Amaranthaceae, Basellaceae, Cactaceae, Didiereaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Phytolaccaceae and Portulacaceae. However, other flavonoids, i.e. flavones, C-glycosylflavones, flavonols, flavanones, dihydroflavonols, chalcones, aurones, and flavan and proanthocyanidins, are synthesized in betalain-containing families. In this review, distribution and properties of the flavonoids in eight betalain-containing families are described.

Evolutionary blocks to anthocyanin accumulation and the loss of an anthocyanin carrier protein in betalain-pigmented Caryophyllales

“…Of the 18 components of the flavonoid pathway examined here, almost all are broadly conserved and actively expressed in betalain-pigmented families ( Fig. 3 ), consistent with the reported presence of flavonols, flavones, and proanthocyanidins in both betalain - pigmented and anthocyanin-pigmented species (Iwashina, 2015). In addition, we found extensive evidence of gene duplication of flavonoid pathway genes, across core Caryophyllales, and notably also within betalain-pigmented lineages ( Fig.…”

“…Despite the loss of anthocyanins, the presence of a broad range of other flavonoids (flavones, flavonols and proanthocyanins) is well documented in betalain-pigmented species (Iwashina, 2015). The branched nature of the flavonoid synthesis pathway (Ho & Smith, 2016; Ng et al ., 2018) means that most enzymatic steps attributed to anthocyanin synthesis are pleiotropic with respect to these other flavonoids (Fig.…”

“…F3′5′H has previously been documented to be rapidly pseudogenised and deleted in anthocyanin-pigmented species that have transitioned away from delphinin-based blue towards red coloured flowers (Smith & Rausher, 2011; Wessinger & Rausher, 2014), indicating a major role for F3′5′H in the production of blue anthocyanins (Ho & Smith, 2016). Interestingly, in the extensive documentation of flavonoids across Caryophyllales (Iwashina, 2015), quercetin-type flavonoids derived via F3′H enzymatic activity are very common, but myricetin-type flavonoids derived via F3′5′H enzymatic activity are correspondingly extremely rare, supporting the general absence of F3′5′H activity in Caryophyllales. It is unclear to what extent the loss of F3′5′H is related to the evolution of betalain pigments, but blue flowers are rare across Caryophyllales, including in the anthocyanin-pigmented Caryophyllaceae, perhaps resulting in the widespread loss of F3′5′H .…”

Protective Effects of Polyphenols against Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

“…In general, more than two-thirds of the polyphenols consumed in one's diet are flavonoids. To date, more than 4000 flavonoids have been identified and described [92]. Their beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system have been described mainly in relation to the French Paradox phenomenon and the Mediterranean diet.…”

The 6-AF Evaluation of Neuroprotective Activity against Cd- Induced Oxidative Stress and Degenerative Brain Disease including PD in Mice

“…In cancer, the 6-AF are incredibly active. Studies have also shown that 6-AF's antioxidant activities are vigorous; as a result, 6-Aminoflavone was used in the current investigation to test its effectiveness against reactive radicals in a mouse model [22][23][24] .…”