Fish, n-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Diseases in Women of Reproductive Age

Abstract

Abstract-Previous studies have indicated a protective effect of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCn3FAs) against cardiovascular disease; however, women are underrepresented in cardiovascular research. The aim of this study was to explore the association between intake of LCn3FAs and the risk of cardiovascular disease in a large prospective cohort of young women (mean age at baseline: 29.9 years [range: 15.7-46.9] Key Words: cardiovascular diseases Ⅲ fatty acids Ⅲ epidemiology Ⅲ follow-up study Ⅲ women E vidence from observational prospective studies, 1-5 as well as randomized, controlled trials, 6 -8 suggests a protective effect of fish consumption and intake of the essential long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCn3FAs) against cardiovascular disease. The hypothesis of a beneficial cardiovascular effect of LCn3FAs originally stems from studies in the Greenland Inuit, where the incidence of coronary heart disease, and, in particular, acute myocardial infarction, was very low. 9 Although findings have not been consistent, 10,11 both previous and recent reviews have concluded that there is solid evidence of a protective effect of LCn3FAs against cardiovascular diseases, 12-16 whereas, on the other hand, a much debated Cochrane review from 2004 concluded that it is unclear whether dietary or supplemental LCn3FAs alter the risk of cardiovascular events in high-risk groups or in the general population. 17 A recent review of the cardiovascular effects of LCn3FAs concluded that, whereas there is evidence of several beneficial cardiovascular effects of LCn3FAs, there are still many uncertainties in the field, for example, regarding arrhythmic events. 18 Recently it has been emphasized by experts that cardiovascular risk in women is underestimated, and women are underrepresented in cardiovascular research. 19,20 Even if most risk factors are shared by men and women, there might be sex differences with regard to their impact, 21 and inflammation, high-density lipoprotein, and triglyceride levels might have a more negative influence on cardiovascular risk in women than in men. 21 Because these risk factors are supposedly affected by LCn3FA intake, this underlines a need for studies on the importance of LCn3FAs in women.The large birth cohorts that have emerged in several countries in the last decade provide information collected on a wide range of exposures and characteristics, which can facilitate such observational studies on etiologic associations in female populations. The aim of this study was to examine

Lean Fish Consumption Is Associated with Beneficial Changes in the Metabolic Syndrome Components: A 13-Year Follow-Up Study from the Norwegian Tromsø Study

“…The beneficial effects of fish consumption on both CVD [6,7,8,9,10,11,12] and DM2 have been described previously [13,14,15]. Since MetS consists of several of the same risk factors as CVD and DM2, one would expect fish consumption to reduce the risk of MetS as well.…”

Effect of the amount and type of dietary fat on cardiometabolic risk factors and risk of developing type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer: a systematic review

“…In one study, no association with coronary calcification was found (102). However, six of the studies found a significant risk reduction for CVD, but in most cases only for specific outcomes (ischemic stroke, sudden cardiac death (SCD), fatal CHD, and CHD) (95, 96, 98, 100, 103–105). In two studies with similar outcomes, no association was found (107, 108).…”

“…One of the studies found that the degree of risk reduction on sudden coronary mortality decreased with age in men and was not significant after the age of 65 years (100), which could explain the lack of an effect in the studies where most of the cases were above that age (99, 101, 102, 106). One of the recent Scandinavian studies did find an increase in an overall risk of CVD as well as in all its sub-disease classes (CHD, stroke, and hypertension) at very low n-3 LCPUFA intake (≤0.06 g/day) compared with intakes >0.73 g/day in women aged 16–47 with a follow-up of up to 12 years (105). The typical effect size was a risk reduction of 30–60% at intakes >0.2 g/day.…”

Primary and Secondary Prevention of Ischemic Heart Disease in Women

“…In a large study of over 48, 000 women in the Danish National Birth Cohort, women of reproductive age who had little to no fish intake had a significantly higher risk of CHD as compared to women with the highest levels of fish intake (hazard ratio 3.80, 95 % CI 1. 53-9.42) [17].…”