First large‐scale provenance study of pigments reveals new complex behavioural patterns during the Upper Palaeolithic of south‐western Germany

Abstract

The use of red iron‐based earth pigments, or ochre, is a key component of early symbolic behaviours for anatomically modern humans and possibly Neanderthals. We present the first ochre provenance study in Central Europe showing long‐term selection strategies by inhabitants of cave sites in south‐western Germany during the Upper Palaeolithic (43–14.5 ka). Ochre artefacts from Hohle Fels, Geißenklösterle and Vogelherd, and local and extra‐local sources, were investigated using neutron activation analysis (NAA), X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results show that local ochre sources were continuously and systematically accessed for c.29 500 years, with periodic events of long‐distance (about > 300 km) ochre acquisition during the Aurignacian (c.35–43 ka), suggesting higher mobility than previously suspected. The results reveal previously unknown long‐term, complex spatio‐temporal behavioural patterns during the earliest presence of Homo sapiens in Europe.

Invasive and Non-Invasive Analyses of Ochre and Iron-Based Pigment Raw Materials: A Methodological Perspective

“…This list is quite different from the list of trace elements quantified by ICP-MS that were used to discriminate the geological shale samples, which were As, Ba, Cr, Sb, and V [28]. Moreover, it is quite a low number of trace elements for the discrimination of geological ochre sources in general [18,19,38,39,56,[58][59][60][61]63,64,85,122]. Nonetheless, the discrimination between two sources based on a few trace elements is possible as soon as these sources are characterized by consistent and significant differences.…”

Characterizing the pigments and paints of prehistoric artists

“…Indeed, accurate diagnostic analysis of rock art productions can provide insight into pigments' raw materials and their provenance, offering precious information on the geographic practices and the social networks of prehistoric artists and their counterparts (Chalmin et al 2006;Iriarte et al 2009;Jezequel et al 2011;Mas et al 2013;Pitarch et al 2014), as well as into painters' manufacturing methods for pigment processing, such as grinding, heating, sieving and settling, and pigment application techniques (Menu and Walter 1992;Salomon et al 2008;Bonneau et al 2012;Salomon et al 2015, Hernanz et al 2008López et al 2017;Cuenca-Solana et al 2016;Gay et al 2020). Through these sorts of approaches, we obtain information to reconstruct the different steps of the chaîne operatoire (operative sequence) required to produce an artwork, the behaviours, acts and skills of ancient artists and their changes over space and time, of interest to identify cultural differences, similarities and interactions (Jezequiel et al 2011;Bonneau et al 2012;Pitarch et al 2014;Velliky et al 2020;Tortosa et al 2020). Moreover, the physicochemical analyses of the rock paintings are also important to characterize any alteration mechanisms threatening the preservation of the paintings, due to natural aging and weathering or to anthropic direct or indirect interventions.…”

Characterizing paint technologies and recipes in Levantine and Schematic rock art: El Carche site as a case study (Jalance, Spain)

“…In the last few decades, the application of various physico-chemical analyses to identify the composition of pigments of prehistoric rock art are enabling progress in our understanding of the technologies and practices of prehistoric artists worldwide and their evolution over time [1][2][3][4]. The identification of the mineral sources is used to explore mobility practices and social interactions [6][7][8]. Patterns of raw material transformation and variations in paint recipes are used to explore changing social identities and cultural practices and to identify authors, traditions and schools [5][6][7][8].…”

“…The identification of the mineral sources is used to explore mobility practices and social interactions [6][7][8]. Patterns of raw material transformation and variations in paint recipes are used to explore changing social identities and cultural practices and to identify authors, traditions and schools [5][6][7][8]. Stratigraphic analyses are important to record and characterize relationships of paint layers as well as natural coatings and order chronologically painting events [9,10].…”