Fire toxicity – The elephant in the room?

Stec, Anna A.

doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2017.05.003

Cited by 76 publications

(45 citation statements)

References 87 publications

(85 reference statements)

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“…She studied other toxicants, in particular, the significance of HCN from PVC fires. Her results confirmed the danger of HCN in under-ventilated conditions [ 16 ]. Finally, oxygen depletion to 10% or lower usually increases the effects of the toxicants.…”

Section: Gas Emission In Firessupporting

confidence: 52%

Chemical Sensor Systems and Associated Algorithms for Fire Detection: A Review

Fonollosa

Solórzano

Marco

2018

Sensors

118

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Indoor fire detection using gas chemical sensing has been a subject of investigation since the early nineties. This approach leverages the fact that, for certain types of fire, chemical volatiles appear before smoke particles do. Hence, systems based on chemical sensing can provide faster fire alarm responses than conventional smoke-based fire detectors. Moreover, since it is known that most casualties in fires are produced from toxic emissions rather than actual burns, gas-based fire detection could provide an additional level of safety to building occupants. In this line, since the 2000s, electrochemical cells for carbon monoxide sensing have been incorporated into fire detectors. Even systems relying exclusively on gas sensors have been explored as fire detectors. However, gas sensors respond to a large variety of volatiles beyond combustion products. As a result, chemical-based fire detectors require multivariate data processing techniques to ensure high sensitivity to fires and false alarm immunity. In this paper, we the survey toxic emissions produced in fires and defined standards for fire detection systems. We also review the state of the art of chemical sensor systems for fire detection and the associated signal and data processing algorithms. We also examine the experimental protocols used for the validation of the different approaches, as the complexity of the test measurements also impacts on reported sensitivity and specificity measures. All in all, further research and extensive test under different fire and nuisance scenarios are still required before gas-based fire detectors penetrate largely into the market. Nevertheless, the use of dynamic features and multivariate models that exploit sensor correlations seems imperative.

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Section: Gas Emission In Firessupporting

confidence: 52%

Chemical Sensor Systems and Associated Algorithms for Fire Detection: A Review

Fonollosa

Solórzano

Marco

2018

Sensors

118

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“…However, because of the very effective gas phase flame inhibiting reactions of these systems exemplified in Equations (7), (10) and (11) above, incomplete combustion obviously occurs with increased concentrations of toxic fire gases [ 100 ] and especially smoke [ 101 ] being the outcomes, both of which are the major causes of loss of life in fires. In addition to the above flame inhibiting reactions, the concentration of complex particulate materials, including complex polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons [ 102 ], will be enhanced by the debromination and dehydrobromination of the BrFRs present.…”

Section: Organobromine Flame Retardant Synergistsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Potential for Bio-Sustainable Organobromine-Containing Flame Retardant Formulations for Textile Applications—A Review

Horrocks

2020

Polymers

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This review considers the challenge of developing sustainable organobromine flame retardants (BrFRs) and alternative synergists to the predominantly used antimony III oxide. Current BrFR efficiencies are reviewed for textile coatings and back-coatings with a focus on furnishing and similar fabrics covering underlying flammable fillings, such as flexible polyurethane foam. The difficulty of replacing them with non-halogen-containing systems is also reviewed with major disadvantages including their extreme specificity with regard to a given textile type and poor durability.The possibility of replacing currently used BrFRs for textiles structures that mimic naturally occurring organobromine-containing species is discussed, noting that of the nearly 2000 such species identified in both marine and terrestrial environments, a significant number are functionalised polybrominated diphenyl ethers, which form part of a series of little understood biosynthetic biodegradation cycles.The continued use of antimony III oxide as synergist and possible replacement by alternatives, such as the commercially available zinc stannates and the recently identified zinc tungstate, are discussed. Both are effective as synergists and smoke suppressants, but unlike Sb203, they have efficiencies dependent on BrFR chemistry and polymer matrix or textile structure. Furthermore, their effectiveness in textile coatings has yet to be more fully assessed.In conclusion, it is proposed that the future of sustainable BrFRs should be based on naturally occurring polybrominated structures developed in conjunction with non-toxic, smoke-suppressing synergists such as the zinc stannates or zinc tungstate, which have been carefully tailored for given polymeric and textile substrates.

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“…In fact, as described in the previous paragraphs, they are capable of reducing fuel release to the gas phase, through the formation of a protective barrier layer, which acts as a radiation shield, slowing down the flow of fuel and oxygen. As a consequence of the reduction of the volatile development, the amount of toxic effluents is expected to decrease, and for a given ventilation rate, the ventilation conditions become more well-ventilated, hence also lowering the toxicity [51].…”

Section: Conclusion and Future Perspectivesmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Role of Graphene in Flame Retardancy of Polymeric Materials: Recent Advances

Malucelli

2018

CGS

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Background: From its discovery, graphene has become a very fascinating nanomaterial, thanks to its structure that determines peculiar (and unique) mechanical, electrical and thermal properties. Thus, graphene has stimulated and is still motivating several researchers to widen its potentialities that are currently being exploited in different application sectors, comprising catalysis and energy, nanoelectronics, quantum physics and the design and manufacturing of advanced nanocomposite materials and biomaterials. Being a carbon source, already organized in a well-ordered morphology, graphene is nowadays starting to experience a different application, i.e. in the fire retardancy of polymers, foams and textiles, often in combination with other flame retardant additives or nanofillers, with which graphene can often act in a synergistic way. In fact, it is well reported in the scientific literature that graphene and its derivatives can play a key role either in slowing down the flame propagation or even in providing self-extinction to the thermoplastic or thermosetting matrices, where the nanofiller is incorporated in; furthermore, by exploiting surface engineered approaches, it is possible to design very effective flame retardant coatings on textile substrates. Objective: This paper aims at reviewing the current state-of-the-art about the use of graphene and its derivatives as efficient flame retardant additives for different polymeric materials, highlighting the current limitations/achievements and discussing some possible future developments.

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Fire toxicity – The elephant in the room?

Cited by 76 publications

References 87 publications

Chemical Sensor Systems and Associated Algorithms for Fire Detection: A Review

Chemical Sensor Systems and Associated Algorithms for Fire Detection: A Review

The Potential for Bio-Sustainable Organobromine-Containing Flame Retardant Formulations for Textile Applications—A Review

The Role of Graphene in Flame Retardancy of Polymeric Materials: Recent Advances

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