Fetal–Maternal Exposure to Endocrine Disruptors: Correlation with Diet Intake and Pregnancy Outcomes

Abstract

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances able to mimic or to interfere with the endocrine system, thus altering key biological processes such as organ development, reproduction, immunity, metabolism and behavior. High concentrations of EDCs are found in several everyday products including plastic bottles and food containers and they could be easily absorbed by dietary intake. In recent years, considerable interest has been raised regarding the biological effects of EDCs, particularly Bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates, on human pregnancy and fetal development. Several evidence obtained on in vitro and animal models as well as by epidemiologic and population studies strongly indicated that endocrine disruptors could negatively impact fetal and placental health by interfering with the embryonic developing epigenome, thus establishing disease paths into adulthood. Moreover, EDCs could cause and/or contribute to the onset of severe gestational conditions as Preeclampsia (PE), Fetal Growth Restriction (FGR) and gestational diabetes in pregnancy, as well as obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular complications in reproductive age. Therefore, despite contrasting data being present in the literature, endocrine disruptors must be considered as a therapeutic target. Future actions aimed at reducing or eliminating EDC exposure during the perinatal period are mandatory to guarantee pregnancy success and preserve fetal and adult health.

UV-B Filter Octylmethoxycinnamate Alters the Vascular Contractility Patterns in Pregnant Women with Hypothyroidism

“…According to Couderq, et al [ 80 ] assessing the effects of a compound’s endocrine disruption is a challenge due to (i) the existence of non-monotonic responses, which leads to questioning where the “safe” threshold doses are determined; (ii) the endocrine system is an integrative and complex system that may involve different hormonal pathways; (iii) the existence of critical stages of development such as pregnancy, which are more vulnerable to exposure to EDC and (iv) the effects of exposure may occur at a later stage of development or even extend to future generations. This concept was introduced by the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease theory (DOHaD), which highlights the importance that EDCs can play in fetal programming [ 81 ]. Fetal programming is understood as the “result of epigenetic changes that occurs in response to various stimuli that come from the environment that can affect the life and health of the baby even in adulthood” [ 82 ].…”

“…Consequently, OMC has been detected in urine, plasma [ 27 ], breast milk samples [ 19 , 28 ] and placenta [ 29 ]. Thus, our results may indicate that the OMC effects may be remarkable in the future generation, since the developing fetus is more sensitive to EDCs than a human adult [ 81 ]. Based on the fetal programming hypothesis, pregnancies affected by diseases such as gestational diabetes appear to be associated with endothelial dysfunction of the human umbilical vein (HUV) [ 86 ].…”

Endocrine Disruptor Compounds—A Cause of Impaired Immune Tolerance Driving Inflammatory Disorders of Pregnancy?

“…EDCs can also modulate synthesis of hormones and their respective receptors (2). Through these actions, they can interfere with physiological events and tissue homeostasis over the entire life cycle (2,(8)(9)(10).…”

“…The events of reproduction, pregnancy, and fetal development are highly sensitive to EDCs because they involve a greater degree of tissue remodeling and hormone-dependence than other physiological processes. EDCs exert negative impacts on fertility and reproductive outcome, affecting gamete, embryo, and fetal development (2,8,(11)(12)(13), with consequences that can cause fetal loss or attenuate offspring phenotype to impact lifetime health (2,9,(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19). The specific mechanisms by which different EDCs exert adverse developmental effects are not yet clear, and are likely to be complex and diverse.…”

Placental Glucose Transporters and Response to Bisphenol A in Pregnancies from of Normal and Overweight Mothers

“…Consequently, the human population is continuously exposed to BPA, as revealed by its presence in the environment and populations in general [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. BPA can represent a hazard in prenatal life because of its presence in the placenta, amniotic fluid, maternal and fetal blood, and its ability to cross the placenta and reach the fetus [ 5 ]. Among health disorders potentially attributed to BPA, its effects on the metabolism have been largely documented in the last few years.…”