Fermented Wild Ginseng by Rhizopus oligosporus Improved l-Carnitine and Ginsenoside Contents

Abstract

We conducted this study to investigate the beneficial effects of Rhizopus oligosporus fermentation of wild ginseng on ginsenosides, l-carnitine contents and its biological activity. The Rhizopus oligosporus fermentation of wild ginseng was carried out at 30 °C for between 1 and 14 days. Fourteen ginsenosides and l-carnitine were analyzed in the fermented wild ginseng by the ultra high pressure liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS) system. Our results showed that the total amount of ginsenosides in ginseng increased from 3274 to 5573 mg/kg after 14 days of fermentation. Among the 14 ginsenosides tested, the amounts of 13 ginsenosides (Rg1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg2, Rg3, Rh1, compound K, F1 and F2) increased, whereas ginsenoside Rb1 decreased, during the fermentation. Furthermore, l-carnitine (630 mg/kg) was newly synthesized in fermented ginseng extract after 14 days. In addition, both total phenol contents and DPPH radical scavenging activities showed an increase in the fermented ginseng with respect to non-fermented ginseng. These results show that the fermentation process reduced the cytotoxicity of wild ginseng against RAW264.7 cells. Both wild and fermented wild ginseng showed anti-inflammatory activity via inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in RAW264.7 murine macrophage cells.

Production of L-carnitine-enriched edible filamentous fungal biomass through submerged cultivation

“…The amount of L-carnitine in A. oryzae pure biomass was three times, two times, and seven times and a half times higher than that found in the biomass of R. oryzae, R. oligosporus , and N. intermedia , respectively ( Table 1 ). In addition to be limited to studies applying solid-state fermentation, a narrow range of strains, where R. oligosporus is the filamentous fungus of choice in single or in association with Pleurotus ostreatus , as well as a narrow range of substrates, namely buckwheat, quinoa, and ginseng, have been used for the production of L-carnitine [ 21 , 22 , 35 , 36 ]. Fermentation with R. oligosporus led to an increase of four times (from 168.6 to 680.9 μg/kg) in L-carnitine concentration of buckwheat [ 21 ].…”

“…A two-stage fermentation on buckwheat, including the first fermentation with R. oligosporus followed by fermentation with oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus), was found beneficial and led to the highest yield of L-carnitine, namely, of 201.2 mg/kg in comparison to that obtained following fermentation with only the mushroom (186.3 mg/kg) [22]. Further studies using R. oligosporus reported a yield of L-carnitine of 3.14 and 630 mg/kg following 3 days of fermentation on quinoa [36] and 14 days on wild ginseng [35], respectively (Table 2). Therefore, the present study introduces new strains, namely, A. oryzae and R. oryzae, as potential L-carnitine producers considering the yield of L-carnitine found in their biomass in comparison to that found in the biomass of R. oligosporus.…”

Phytochemical properties and functional characteristics of wild turmeric (Curcuma aromatica) fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus

“…A 1 μL sample was injected into the UPLC-MS system (Acquity H-Class system with a QDa detector; Waters, Milford, MA, USA) and separated using an Acquity UPLC Beh HILIC column (1.7 μm, 2.1 × 100 mm; Waters) at 40 °C. The elution gradient for l -carnitine analysis was previously reported ( Lee et al, 2020 ). Positive electrospray ionization (ESI) was controlled with selected ion recording (SIR) ( m / z 162).…”

“…It produces various enzymes including amylase, protease, glucoamylase, and lipase, as well as carbohydrate-cleaving enzymes including xylanase, β-glucuronidase, and β-glucosidase to synthesize l -carnitine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and polyphenols during fermentation ( Huynh et al, 2014 , McCue and Shetty, 2003 ). Recently, we reported improvement of l -carnitine, GABA, and bioactive phenolic compound contents, as well as the biological properties of quinoa, ginseng, and buckwheat through SSF using R. oligosporus ( Hur et al, 2018 , Lee et al, 2020 , Park et al, 2018 ). Moreover, coffee fermented via SSF using R. oligosporus had improved aroma and sweetness ( Lee, Cheong, Curran, Yu, & Liu, 2016 ).…”

Polymorphic Characterization, Pharmacokinetics, and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Ginsenoside Compound K Polymorphs

“…Ginseng ( Panax ginseng ) is a well-known and prevalent traditional herb for its medicinal and healing properties in East Asian countries. Triterpene saponins, commonly known as ginsenosides, are the major pharmacologically active ginseng components [ 1 , 2 ].…”