Fast and Fragile

Abstract

Numerous studies suggest that processing verbal materials containing negations slows down cognition and makes it more error-prone. This suggests that processing negations affords relatively nonautomatic processes. The present research studied the role of two automaticity features (processing speed and resource dependency) for negation processing. In three experiments, we tested the impact of verbal negations on affective priming effects in the Affect Misattribution Paradigm. Going beyond previous work, the results indicate that negations can be processed unintentionally and quickly (Experiments 1 and 2). In Experiment 3, negations failed to qualify affective priming effects when participants' working memory was taxed by memorizing an eight-digit number. In sum, the experiments suggest that negations can be processed unintentionally, very quickly, but that they rely on working-memory resources.

Reflection and Impulse as Determinants of Human Behavior

“…Selfcontrol (e.g., Lattimore & Maxwell, 2004 ;Wegner, Erber, & Zanakos, 1993 ), processing of negated stimuli (Deutsch et al 2009 ), social judgments and attributions (Gilbert et al, 1988 ;Krull & Erickson, 1995 ;Trope & Alfi eri, 1997 ), moral judgments (Greene, Morelli, Lowenberg, Nystrom, & Cohen, 2008 ), and general reasoning (De Neys, 2006 ) have all proven to be impaired by cognitive load in ways that are consistent with the RIM's predictions. The idea that working memory resources may also play a role in refl ective processing has been tested in several studies, both by comparing individuals with dispositionally high or low working memory capacities (Hofmann, Gschwendner, Friese, Wiers, & Schmitt, 2008 ;Thush et al, 2008 ) and by specifi cally taxing resources of working memory (Deutsch et al, 2009 ). The conceptualization of working memory as "a domain-free limitation in ability to control attention" (Engle, 2002 , p. 19) points to the conclusion that the effects of attentional cognitive load manipulations on refl ective processing may be mediated by working memory capacity.…”

“…Evidence supporting this logic comes from the Bona Fide Pipeline task (Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ), which was used in a study by Deutsch, Gawronski, and Strack ( 2006 ), who showed that positive prime words facilitated categorization of positive targets even when the prime was negated, whereas both negated and nonnegated negative prime words facilitated categorization of negative target. Although this effect is not universal (Deutsch et al, 2009 ), it provides evidence that impulsive associations are what implicit attitude procedures measure. Procedures used to change implicit attitudes, such as automatic stereotype reduction training (Kawakami, Dovidio, Moll, Hermsen, & Russin, 2000 ), can also benefi t from the implications of the RIM's structure.…”

“…Although propositional processing in the refl ective system may create associative links between concepts in the impulsive system, it is not necessarily the case that propositional processing can become completely automatic and effortless with enough practice (Deutsch et al, 2009 ). Instead, specifi c patterns of thought may become easier but lose or change their meaning under circumstances where refl ective processing is hindered.…”

“…Given the research showing that negation is a refl ective process that requires refl ective resources (Deutsch et al, 2006(Deutsch et al, , 2009Grant, Malaviya, & Sternthal, 2004 ), one must wonder at the effi cacy of negated persuasive messages. Evidence showing that older adults may be more likely to misremember explicitly negated information has been interpreted as a warning against negatively worded statements in healthcare materials (Wilson & Park, 2008 ).…”

“…This awareness may sometimes be accompanied by a particular feeling that is processed consciously, a state of experiential awareness. It should be noted, however, that some operations in the refl ective system may require so few resources that they can be processed without corresponding noetic awareness or a feeling of intentionality (Deutsch, Kordts-Freudinger, Gawronski, & Strack, 2009 ).…”