Family Disadvantage, Education, and Health Outcomes Among Black Youths Over a 20-Year Period

Abstract

ImportanceUpward mobility (via educational attainment) is highly valued, but longitudinal associations with mental and physical health among Black youths are less understood.ObjectiveTo examine associations of childhood family disadvantage and college graduation with adult mental and physical health in Black youths followed up into adulthood.Design, Setting, and ParticipantsThis longitudinal, prospective cohort study of Black youths from the state of Georgia who were studied for 20 years (ages 11 to 31 years) was conducted between 2001 and 2022. Participants for this study were drawn from the Strong African American Healthy Adults Program. Data analysis was conducted from April 2023 to January 2024.ExposuresFamily economic disadvantage (measured during the adolescent years) and college graduation (indicating upward mobility).Main Outcomes and MeasuresPrimary outcomes included mental health, substance use, and physical health. Mental health included a composite of internalizing and disruptive problems (anxiety, depression, anger, aggressive behaviors, and emotional reactivity). Substance use included a composite of smoking, drinking, and drug use. Physical health included metabolic syndrome (MetS) and proinflammatory phenotypes (immune cells mounting exaggerated cytokine responses to bacterial challenge and being insensitive to inhibitory signals from glucocorticoids). Mental and physical health measures were taken at age 31 and during the adolescent years. Linear and logistic regression analyses, as well as mediated moderation analyses, were conducted.ResultsThe study population consisted of 329 Black youths (212 women [64%]; 117 men [36%]; mean [SD] age at follow-up, 31 [1] years). Compared with those who did not graduate college, those who graduated from college had 0.14 SD fewer mental health problems (b = −1.377; 95% CI, −2.529 to −0.226; β = −0.137; P = .02) and 0.13 SD lower levels of substance use (b = −0.114; 95% CI, −0.210 to −0.018; β = −0.131; P = .02). Residualized change scores revealed that college graduates showed greater decreases from age 16 to 31 years in mental health problems (b = −1.267; 95% CI, −2.360 to −0.174; β = −0.133; P = .02) and substance use problems (b = −0.116; 95% CI, −0.211 to −0.021; β = −0.136; P = .02). For physical health, significant interactions between childhood family disadvantage and college completion emerged in association with MetS (OR, 1.495; 95% CI, 1.111-2.012; P = .008) and proinflammatory phenotype (b = 0.051; 95% CI, 0.003 to 0.099; β = 0.131; P = .04). Among youths growing up in disadvantaged households, college completion was associated with a 32.6% greater likelihood of MetS (OR, 3.947; 95% CI, 1.003-15.502; P = .049) and 0.59 SD more proinflammatory phenotype (mean difference, 0.249, 95% CI, 0.001 to 0.497; P = .049). Conversely, among those from economically advantaged backgrounds, college completion was correlated with lower MetS and less proinflammatory phenotype. Findings held after controlling for body mass index at age 19 years.Conclusions and RelevanceIn this longitudinal cohort study of Black youths, graduating from college was associated with an adult profile of better mental health but poorer physical health among those from economic disadvantage. These findings suggest that developing interventions that foster healthy outcomes across multiple life domains may be important for ensuring that striving for upward mobility is not accompanied by unintended cardiometabolic risk.