Facultative cleaning of spiral‐horned antelope by the African paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone viridis)

Abstract

Cleaning associations, which involve a "cleaner" species that removes and feeds on parasites, debris and other material from a "client" species, are a widespread type of interspecific interaction found in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (Caves, 2021;Sazima et al., 2012).While largely cited as positive interactions, such associations can range in their specificity and/or outcome depending on the species involved, the client's parasite load, type of matter removed by cleaners, and environmental conditions (Caves, 2021;Cheney & Côté, 2005;Vaughan et al., 2017). Cleaning associations can obligate mutualisms if they represent a major food source for cleaners and result in a sizeable reduction in parasites that often inflict painful wounds, act as vectors of pathogens, and/or are a nuisance to clients (Poulin & Grutter, 1996). In other cases, cleaning associations can be facultative, with interactions being largely opportunistic and/ or commensal if parasite removal effects are negligible for clients (Caves, 2021;Sazima, 2011). Additionally, the way in which parasites or pests are removed by cleaners can further influence the outcome of these cleaning associations. For instance, clients may benefit from