FACTRETRIEVAL2: A PASCAL program for assessing someone’s recall of general-information facts, confidence about recall correctness, feeling-of-knowing judgments for nonrecalled facts, and recognition of nonrecalled facts

Wilkinson, Timothy S.; Nelson, Thomas O.

doi:10.3758/bf03202495

Cited by 20 publications

(16 citation statements)

References 6 publications

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“…They were shown the question followed by four alternatives, one of which was the correct answer (from Wilkinson & Nelson, 1984, for the neutral questions). A number accompanied each alternative.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The effects of emotion on tip-of-the-tongue states

Schwartz

2010

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review

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82The signs of it [TOT] were unmistakable; he would appear to be in mild torment, something like the brink of a sneeze, and if he found the word his relief was considerable.R. Brown and McNeill (1966, p. 326) The tip-of-the-tongue state (TOT) is the feeling that a currently inaccessible item will be recalled (R. Brown & McNeill, 1966; see A. S. Brown, 1991;Schwartz, 2002Schwartz, , 2006and Smith, 1994, for reviews). As the quote from R. Brown and McNeill suggests, many anecdotal reports associate TOTs with the experience of emotion. However, the relation, if any, between emotion and TOTs has seldom been explored in empirical studies. It is unknown, for example, whether people experience TOTs more often when they are already emotionally aroused or if TOTs themselves induce strong emotional arousal. The present study demonstrated the role of emotional stimuli in people's experience of TOTs. The relation between memory and emotion is an old and important one (Ken singer & Schacter, 2008). In other domains, research has shown that emotion can influence memory variables, such as the amount recalled in older adults (Kensinger, 2009) or attributions of nostalgia (Leboe & Ansons, 2006). Two empirical studies addressed the nature of TOTs and emotion, and both are correlational. Schwartz, Travis, Castro, and Smith (2000) asked participants to ascribe an emotional state to a TOT and then correlated emotionality judgments with objective measures of performance. Participants answered general information questions and were asked to judge whether they were in a TOT for unrecalled questions. If they indicated that they were in a TOT, they were then asked whether or not an emotional feeling or a feeling of frustration accompanied the TOT. Later, they were given a second chance to recall the answer, and if they could not, they were given a recognition test. Slightly more than half (55%) of all TOTs were judged to be emotional. Emotional TOTs were more likely to be recalled later and were recognized later than were TOTs that were not judged to be emotional. Schwartz et al. showed that participants readily ascribe emotions to TOTs and that experiencing emotion was predictive of later objective memory performance.Schwartz (2001) also asked for emotion judgments following a TOT report. Participants had to decide whether each TOT was emotionally frustrating, emotionally exciting, or neither. TOTs were more likely to be judged as frustrating (59%) rather than exciting (7%). The remaining TOTs (34%) were not accompanied by emotion. Schwartz (2001) also demonstrated the relation between TOTs and emotions. It also suggested that the emotion experienced by participants is, by and large, negative.In the present study, emotion is elicited by uncomfortable questions, related to topics likely to be considered negative. It is unclear how emotion produced by these questions is related to the emotion experienced during TOTs. It is possible that they have nothing to do with each other, but it is also possible that emotion elicited by question...

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The effects of emotion on tip-of-the-tongue states

Schwartz

2010

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review

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“…The participants were given a recognition test for the questions that they did not recall correctly. They were again shown the question, followed by eight alternatives, one of which was the correct answer (Wilkinson & Nelson, 1984). A number accompanied each alternative.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Working memory load differentially affects tip-of-the-tongue states and feeling-of-knowing judgments

Schwartz

2008

Memory & Cognition

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Tip-of-the-tongue states (TOTs) are judgments of the likelihood of imminent retrieval for items currently not recalled, whereas feeling-of-knowing judgments (FOKs) are predictions of successful recognition for items not recalled. The assumption has been that similar metacognitive processes dictate these similar judgments. In Experiment 1, TOTs and FOKs were compared for general information questions. Participants remembered four digits (working memory load) during target retrieval for half of the questions, and there was no memory load for the other questions. Working memory did not affect recall but decreased the number of TOTs and increased FOKs. In Experiment 2, participants maintained six digits during retrieval. TOTs decreased in the working memory condition, but FOKs remained constant. Experiment 3 replicated the results of Experiment 2 while asking for FOKs for recall. In each of the first three experiments, positive metacognitive judgments also affected working memory performance, supporting the idea that working memory and metamemory use similar monitoring processes. In Experiment 4, visual working memory did not affect TOTs or FOKs. The data support a view that TOTs and FOKs are separable metacognitive entities.

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“…They were again shown the question, followed by eight alternatives, one of which was the correct answer (Wilkinson & Nelson, 1984). Each alternative was accompanied by a number.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The phenomenology of real and illusory tip-of-the-tongue states

et al. 2000

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The tip-of-the-tongue state (TOT)is the phenomenological experience that a word is on the verge of being recalled. Most research has been directed at TOT etiology and at retrieval processes occurring during a TOT. In this study, TOT phenomenology was examined. In Experiment 1, strong TOTs were more likely than weak TOTsto be followed by correct recognition, and resolution (later recall) of TOTs was higher for strong than for weak TOTs, but only for commission errors. In Experiment 2, emotional TOTswere more likely to be resolved and recognized than nonemotional TOTs. In Experiment 3, imminence was defined as the feeling that retrieval is about to occur. Imminent TOTswere more likely to be followed by resolution and recognition than were nonimminent TOTs.lIIusory TOTs(TOTsfor unanswerable questions) tended to be weaker, less emotional, and less imminent than TOTsfor answerable questions.18

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FACTRETRIEVAL2: A PASCAL program for assessing someone’s recall of general-information facts, confidence about recall correctness, feeling-of-knowing judgments for nonrecalled facts, and recognition of nonrecalled facts

Cited by 20 publications

References 6 publications

The effects of emotion on tip-of-the-tongue states

The effects of emotion on tip-of-the-tongue states

Working memory load differentially affects tip-of-the-tongue states and feeling-of-knowing judgments

The phenomenology of real and illusory tip-of-the-tongue states

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