Factors affecting the adoption of multiple climate‐smart agricultural practices in the Indo‐Gangetic Plains of India

Abstract

Climate change poses a major threat to agricultural production and food security in India, and climate‐smart agriculture (CSA) is crucial in addressing the potential impacts. Using survey data from 1,267 farm households in 25 villages from Bihar and Haryana in the Indo‐Gangetic Plains, this study analyzes the factors that determine the probability and level of adoption of multiple CSA practices, including seeds of stress‐tolerant varieties, minimum tillage, laser land leveling, site‐specific nutrient management and crop diversification. We applied a multivariate probit model for the simultaneous multiple adoption decisions, and ordered probit models for assessing the factors affecting the level of adoption. The adoption of the various CSA practices is interrelated, whereas several factors, including household characteristics, plot characteristics, market access and major climate risks are found to affect the probability and level of CSA adoption. Climate‐smart agriculture (CSA) adoption and its intensity also vary significantly between eastern Bihar, which is relatively poor and densely populated, and north‐western Haryana. Engaging multiple stakeholders such as farmers, agricultural institutions, agricultural service providers and concerned government departments at the local level is crucial for the large‐scale uptake of CSA. The study, therefore, calls for agricultural policy reforms so that most of the issues related to the uptake of CSA can be adequately addressed.

Determinants of the Adoption of Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices by Small-Scale Farming Households in King Cetshwayo District Municipality, South Africa

“…Planting varieties of crops of the same or different species [35] Mulching Covering the soil between plants with layer/s of material [36] Use of wetland Planting on wetlands where the soil is rich in water and fertility [37] Use of drought and heat tolerant crops Planting drought and heat tolerant crops [12] Use of cover crops Planting cover crops [12] Soil conservation techniques Preventing soil loss from erosion or alleviating soil fertility loss by reducing contamination through acidification, salinization or other chemicals [12] Integrated crop-livestock management Integrating crop and livestock production Improved grazing Efficient pasture management (improved sowing varieties of pasture, rotational grazing) [38] Efficient manure management Efficient management of manure on livestock production [38] Diet improvement for animals Improving the diet of animals to achieve more protein production with less feed and lower emission [38] The assessment of adoption intensity is often based on the relative area, but it is difficult to assess the exact area under each CSA practice. Following Aryal et al [14] and Teklewold et al [16], this paper assessed adoption level by the number of CSA practices adopted in the farmland of each sampled farming household. The farming households were categorized into low, medium, and high categories of users of CSA practices based on the range of CSA practices adopted.…”

“…Explanatory variables in the gologit model used for the analysis of the determinants of the level of CSA adoption and their expected outcomes. The explanatory variables inputted in the model specification were included based on the theoretical framework and empirical evidence from the literature [14,45]. Studies have shown that the lumpiness of and the complementarities among some explanatory variables constitute a package of actions which must be in place to get the desired outcome in CSA adoption [46].…”

“…Additionally, farmland that is at a long distance from farmers' residence will cost more in terms of transportation of inputs and will be more difficult to monitor. Size of farmland has been found by some studies to influence the adoption of management practice positively [14,45]. It is hypothesized that farmers with larger farmland sizes are more likely to adopt more CSA practices.…”

Mainstreaming Climate-Smart Agriculture in Small-Scale Farming Systems: A Holistic Nonparametric Applicability Assessment in South Africa

“…This paper provides insights into the applicability of CSA practices with a focus on how farmers perceive the social, technical, economic, and environmental compatibility of the practices. Past studies focus on the characteristics of farmers while researching the adaptation of agricultural technologies [28][29][30]. However, the focus on farmers' characteristics has not been holistic in addressing the determinants of technology adaptation [6].…”

“…This finding reflects the assertion of Senyolo et al [35], in their study on how the characteristics of agricultural techniques impact their acceptance, that affordability is a significant factor that can impact the possibilities of agricultural techniques being beneficial to farmers. Aryal et al [30], while studying the factors affecting the adoption of CSA by farmers in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India, point out the significance of economic capital in successful CSA adoption and implementation. Onyeneke et al [29] highlight the importance of farmers' income and access to credit in CSA adaptation.…”