Factors affecting initial training success of blood glucose testing in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

Abstract

Type 2 diabetes can be a problem for captive chimpanzees. Accurate blood glucose (BG) readings are necessary to monitor and treat this disease. Thus, obtaining voluntary samples from primates through positive reinforcement training (PRT) is critical. The current study assessed the voluntary participation of 123 chimpanzees in BG sampling and investigated factors that may contribute to individual success. All subjects participate in regular PRT sessions as part of a comprehensive behavioral management program. Basic steps involved in obtaining BG values include: voluntarily presenting a finger/toe; allowing digit disinfection; holding for the lancet device; and allowing blood collection onto a glucometer test strip for analysis. We recorded the level of participation (none, partial, or complete) when each chimpanzee was first asked to perform the testing procedure. Nearly 30% of subjects allowed the entire procedure in one session, without any prior specific training for the target behavior. Factors that affected this initial successful BG testing included sex, personality (chimpanzees rated higher on the factor “openness” were more likely to participate with BG testing), and past training performance for “present-for-injection” (chimpanzees that presented for their most recent anesthetic injection were more likely to participate). Neither age, rearing history, time since most recent anesthetic event nor social group size significantly affected initial training success. These results have important implications for captive management and training program success, underlining individual differences in training aptitude and the need for developing individual management plans in order to provide optimal care and treatment for diabetic chimpanzees in captivity.

Nonhuman Primates

“…In the research setting, nonhuman primates can be trained to allow voluntary hypodermic injection, urine collection, blood glucose testing, and venipuncture Coleman et al, 2008;Reamer et al, 2014). Voluntary collection techniques are excellent for pharmacokinetic studies requiring repeated small blood samples without the complications of anesthetic drugs or the stress of physical restraint.…”

The implementation and initial evaluation of a physical therapy program for captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

“…This PT program, using PRT, represents an additional important refinement that can be applied to a variety of NHP species experiencing a variety of physical conditions, including arthritis, paresis, lameness, and injury. In addition to enhancing physical health, physical therapy routines may be enriching to NHPs in other ways, as the procedures increase the level of human interaction and choice within the captive environment, both of which have been shown to enhance welfare (Baker, 2004; Pomerantz & Terkel, 2009; Reamer et al, 2014). In the current study, control chimpanzees received a comparable amount of increased human interaction and choice through training sessions but did not show the same increases in wellness ratings as PT chimpanzees (although control chimpanzees did show a trending decrease in anxiety‐related behavior ratings across phases, perhaps suggesting that there were some beneficial effects of the training sessions alone).…”

“…Furthermore, the use of positive reinforcement training (PRT) to enhance the healthcare of older animals (by allowing chimpanzees to voluntarily participate in healthcare routines) has become a more common component of behavioral management and veterinary care procedures (Magden, 2017; Magden et al, 2013, 2016; Prescott & Buchanan‐Smith, 2016; Reamer, Haller, Lambeth, & Schapiro, 2017). For example, PRT has been used for voluntary presentation of body parts during acupuncture, laser therapy, blood glucose sampling, medication injection, and anesthetic injection for physical exams (Lambeth, Hau, Perlman, Martino, & Schapiro, 2006; Magden, 2017; Magden et al, 2013, 2016; Reamer et al, 2014).…”

“…For example, PRT has been used for voluntary presentation of body parts during acupuncture, laser therapy, blood glucose sampling, medication injection, and anesthetic injection for physical exams (Lambeth, Hau, Perlman, Martino, & Schapiro, 2006;Magden, 2017;Magden et al, 2013Magden et al, , 2016Reamer et al, 2014).…”

A multi‐institutional assessment of a short‐form personality questionnaire for use with macaques

“…For those charged with the care of captive primates, understanding primate personality characteristics at a species level, as well as developing a more fine‐grained description at the individual level, is vital because specific personality traits have been shown to be related to possible indices of well‐being, such as longevity ( Gorilla gorilla gorilla , Weiss, Gartner, Gold, & Stoinski, ), digestive health ( Rhinopithecus roxellana , Jin, Su, Tao, Guo, & Yu, ), and stereotypic behavior ( Macaca mulatta , Gottlieb, Capitanio, & McCowan, ). Furthermore, certain personality characteristics have been demonstrated to be associated with primates’ problem‐solving abilities ( Pan troglodytes , Hopper et al, ), their skills at learning and solving computer‐based tasks ( M. mulatta , Altschul, Terrace, & Weiss, ; P. troglodytes , Altschul, Wallace, Sonnweber, Tomonaga, & Weiss, ), and their willingness to engage in training for husbandry purposes ( P. troglodytes , Reamer et al, ). Ideally, then, the care of captive primates should not be a “one size fits all strategy” but should be tailored to the individual animals according to their personalities and individual needs (Coleman, ).…”