Fabrication techniques of biomimetic scaffolds in three‐dimensional cell culture: A review

Abstract

In the last four decades, several researchers worldwide have routinely and meticulously exercised cell culture experiments in two-dimensional (2D) platforms. Using traditionally existing 2D models, the therapeutic efficacy of drugs has been inappropriately validated due to the failure in generating the precise therapeutic response. Fortunately, a 3D model addresses the foregoing limitations by recapitulating the in vivo environment. In this context, one has to contemplate the design of an appropriate scaffold for favoring the organization of cell microenvironment. Instituting pertinent model on the platter will pave way for a precise mimicking of in vivo conditions. It is because animal cells in scaffolds oblige spontaneous formation of 3D colonies that molecularly, phenotypically, and histologically resemble the native environment. The 3D culture provides insight into the biochemical aspects of cell-cell communication, plasticity, cell division, cytoskeletal reorganization, signaling mechanisms, differentiation, and cell death. Focusing on these criteria, this paper discusses in detail, the diversification of polymeric scaffolds based on their available resources. The paper also reviews the well-founded and latest techniques of scaffold fabrication, and their applications pertaining to tissue engineering, drug screening, and tumor model development.

Advances in 3D Printing for Tissue Engineering

“…A schematic illustration is shown in Figure 2. The mostly used scaffold fabrication methods include: electrospinning, additive manufacturing, phase separation, solution casting, foaming, extrusion, and self assembly [19]. In order to limit some disadvantages of the methods, a combination of them is often used, which sometimes leads to very interesting and promising effects [20].…”

Advanced Spheroid, Tumouroid and 3D Bioprinted In-Vitro Models of Adult and Paediatric Glioblastoma

“…Matrix-supported 3D culture involves the use of either naturally occurring extracellular matrix extracts or synthetic scaffolds [86,87]. These act as porous support structures typically containing components of synthetic or animal-derived ECM [88].…”

“…Bioprinting is a form of matrix-supported cell culture where a specialised 3D printer is used to deposit cell-laden bioinks onto a printing bed, the two most common approaches being extrusion (filament) or ink-jet (droplet) approaches [86]-see Figure 2 for a graphical representation of each. Ink-jet printing is a no-contact option where droplets of bioink are released from a nozzle by applying heat or electric current [101] and can even be done with a modified office printer [102].…”

3D-printed HA15-loaded β-Tricalcium Phosphate/ Poly (Lactic-co-glycolic acid) Bone Tissue Scaffold Promotes Bone Regeneration in Rabbit Radial Defects

“…Moreover, the material and method selection must be designed according to specific demands of tissue (structural and metabolic)[ 12 ]. According to the biomimetic scaffold production protocols, the prepared scaffold must maintain a sufficient area for cell adhesion and proliferation, exchange of gaseous species, with the optimized surface-to-volume ratio and the degradation rate that matches tissue formation rate[ 13 ]. The scaffold’s porosity, surface chemistry, morphology, three dimensional (3D) structure, immunogenicity, and mechanical properties have an extensive impact on the matrix properties in the biological artificial bone substitutes[ 14 ].…”