Fabrication and functionality of 3D-printed porous scaffolds composing natural derivatives of duck bones and fish shells and poly(ε-caprolactone)

Abstract

Recycled duck bones (DBs) and fish shells were processed into natural derivatives. Through innovative design, these natural derivatives were then combined with biopolymers to create a new type of ecofriendly filament suitable for three-dimensional (3D) printing of scaffolds for bone regeneration. The DBs and fish shells were thermally processed to produce DB-derived hydroxyapatite (HA) and fish shell-derived Ca(OH)2 (TAS), respectively. Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), HA, and TAS were combined and fabricated into new composite filaments, which were then transformed into scaffolds using 3D printing technology. The structure and antibacterial behaviors of the obtained composite scaffolds were studied. Alone, PCL showed no bacterial inhibition. MHA (a mix of HA and TAS) was added to PCL to form a PCL/MHA composite material, which significantly improved the functional properties of PCL and enhanced cell attachment and proliferation. The Ca(OH)2 content of TAS was responsible for the antibacterial effect. The PCL/MHA composites were porous and displayed enhanced osteoblast proliferation in vitro. The osteoblast cell population do not affected when cultured on the PCL/HA and PCL/MHA series composites according to cell cycle distribution analysis. The surfaces of the various PCL/HA and PCL/MHA composites showed elevated levels of calcium and phosphorus compounds when exposed to simulated body fluids. Calcium and phosphate ions were rapidly deposited on PCL/HA and PCL/MHA composite scaffolds in osteoblasts according to the cell mineralization assay. Our findings suggest great potential of the PCL/HA and PCL/MHA composite scaffolds in bone tissue engineering applications.