Eyelid movements in normal human fetuses

Abstract

Blinking is a normal fetal activity. The increased frequency of blinking activity associated with vibroacoustic stimulation may be considered a part of the normal startle reflex.

Ultrasound for evaluation of fetal neurobehavioural development: from 2‐D to 4‐D ultrasound

“…Numerous studies using conventional two-dimensional (2-D) ultrasound have shown that normally developing fetuses and fetuses at risk exhibit different patterns of behaviour (Andonotopo, Kurjak, & Kosuta, 2005a;Arbin & Riedewald, 1992;Arduini, Rizzo, Caforio, & Mancuso, 1987;de Vries, Visser, & Prechtl, 1982;Goldstein, Zimmer, Tamir, Peretz, & Paldi, 1991;Jorgensen, Marsal, & Lindstrom, 1989;Madison, Madison, & Adubato, 1986;Roodenburg, Wladimiroff, van Es, & Prechtl, 1991;Schmidt, Cseh, Hara, & Kubli, 1984;Shawker et al, 1980;Sival, Visser, & Prechtl, 1990;Sival, 1993;Tuck, 1986;Visser, Laurini, de Vries, Bekedam, & Prechtl, 1985;Whitbeck, 1988). Fetal facial expressions are controlled by the nuclei of facial nerves in the brain, and have also been studied using 2-D ultrasonography (de Vries, Haines, 1983;Horimoto, Koyanagi, Satoh, Yoshizato, & Nakano, 1990;Petrikovsky, Kaplan, & Holsten, 1999;Petrikovsky, Kaplan & Holsten, 2003). However, it is difficult to evaluate complex facial activity because of the anatomical features of the face and limitations of this technique.…”

Fetal Movements. Though They May Be Spontaneous, Yet There is Method in Them

“…Repeated blinking is associated with the central dopaminergic system (Karson 1982). It occurs during the last weeks of pregnancy at a frequency of 6 ± 2 blinks per hour (Petrikovsky et al 2003).…”

Four-dimensional Ultrasound Evaluation of Fetal Neurobehavioral Development

“…15,47 With respect to fetal facial movements employing conventional 2D ultrasound, blinking is a normal fetal activity. 19 "The increased frequency of blinking activity associated with vibroacoustic stimulation may be considered a part of the normal startle reflex". 19 "In both normal and high-risk fetuses, yawning was represented by isolated mouthing movements, and considered to be slow opening of the mouth with simultaneous downward movements of the tongue".…”

“…19 "The increased frequency of blinking activity associated with vibroacoustic stimulation may be considered a part of the normal startle reflex". 19 "In both normal and high-risk fetuses, yawning was represented by isolated mouthing movements, and considered to be slow opening of the mouth with simultaneous downward movements of the tongue". 17 Growth-restricted fetuses demonstrated yawning patterns consisting of isolated yawns similar to those seen in normal fetuses, and unusual bursts of fetal yawning activity were noted in anemic fetuses.…”

“…15 Fetal facial expressions are controlled by the nuclei of facial nerves in the brain, and have also been investigated using 2D ultrasound. [16][17][18][19] Three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound has the potential to provide improved visualization of fetal anatomic morphology compared with conventional 2D ultrasound imaging. The imaging capabilities of 3D ultrasound mean that it is superior to 2D ultrasound in assessing fetal movements.…”