Eye images increase generosity, but not for long: the limited effect of a false cue

Sparks, Adam Maxwell; Barclay, Pat

doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2013.05.001

Cited by 119 publications

(155 citation statements)

References 46 publications

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“…Rather, eye trackers (and other forms of implied social presence; e.g., video cameras) indirectly represent other social agents and this fact might be responsible for the fragile nature of the eye tracker induced social presence effect. Convergent with our findings that the effect is transient is a meta-analysis by Sparks and Barclay (2013) who report that exposure to eye-like images will increase cooperative behaviour (e.g., Ernest-Jones et al, 2011), but only when exposure is for a short period of time (e.g., less than several minutes). Collectively these data would suggest that the mechanisms underlying implied social presence effects are vulnerable to habituation, and the power of the eye tracker to induce a social presence effect is quickly drained.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 89%

Wearable computing: Will it make people prosocial?

Nasiopoulos

Risko

Foulsham

et al. 2014

British J of Psychology

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We recently reported that people who wear an eye tracker modify their natural looking behaviour in a prosocial manner. This change in looking behaviour represents a potential concern for researchers who wish to use eye trackers to understand the functioning of human attention. On the other hand, it may offer a real boon to manufacturers and consumers of wearable computing (e.g., Google Glass), for if wearable computing causes people to behave in a prosocial manner, then the public's fear that people with wearable computing will invade their privacy is unfounded. Critically, both of these divergent implications are grounded on the assumption that the prosocial behavioural effect of wearing an eye tracker is sustained for a prolonged period of time. Our study reveals that on the very first wearing of an eye tracker, and in less than 10 minutes, the prosocial effect of an eye tracker is abolished, but by drawing attention back to the eye tracker the implied presence effect is easily reactivated. This suggests that eye trackers induce a transient social presence effect which is rendered dormant when attention is shifted away from the source of implied presence. This is good news for researchers who use eye trackers to measure attention and behaviour; and could be bad news for advocates of wearable computing in everyday life.Words:217

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 89%

Wearable computing: Will it make people prosocial?

Nasiopoulos

Risko

Foulsham

et al. 2014

British J of Psychology

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show abstract

“…Our null result constitutes one finding among a growing catalog of both positive and negative results. Two recent papers (Nettle et al, 2013;Sparks and Barclay, 2013) presented exhaustive meta-analyses of eye spot studies to clarify the reasons for the mixed empirical results. Two main conclusions emerged.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Specifically, Sparks and Barclay (2013) concluded that eye spots tend to have a reliable effect only when exposure is sufficiently brief and shortly before the decision maker chooses. In our case, the experiment was not computerized.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Nonetheless, the terms capture different themes in the existing literature. The numerous studies showing that payoff-irrelevant faces increase altruism (reviewed in Nettle et al, 2013;Sparks and Barclay, 2013) support the weak hypothesis.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 95%

“…In particular, a number of studies have shown that exposure to face-like stimuli increases altruistic choices in incentivized economic games (reviewed in Nettle et al, 2013;Sparks and Barclay, 2013). Crucially, this outcome occurs even though the face-like stimuli are sometimes quite abstract and do not affect material payoffs.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Eye spots do not increase altruism in children

Vogt

Efferson

Berger

et al. 2015

Evolution and Human Behavior

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The evolutionary legacy hypothesis proposes that an evolved reciprocity-based psychology affects human behavior in anonymous one-shot interactions when reciprocity is not explicitly possible. Empirical support rests on experiments showing that altruism among adults increases in the presence of stylized eye spots or faces. Such stimuli do not affect material payoffs, but they are assumed to activate a person's reciprocity-based psychology. We identify two versions of the evolutionary legacy hypothesis. The weak hypothesis posits that reputational concerns can generate altruism in the absence of opportunities for a good reputation. The strong hypothesis posits that reputational concerns alone can explain anonymous one-shot altruism, and they can do so specifically in lieu of explanations based on group selection. A number of experimental studies support the weak hypothesis but are merely consistent with the strong hypothesis. To address both the weak and strong hypotheses, we conducted an eye spot experiment with children. Altruism can vary by age or sex in childhood, and under the strong hypothesis this kind of variation should reveal associated variation in sensitivity to eye spots. Although we found significant variation in altruism among children, we found no corresponding variation in sensitivity to eye spots. More generally, we found no eye spot effects of any kind. We discuss the possibility that eye spots might only affect altruism under specific conditions. We further argue that conditional effects do not refute the weak hypothesis in any way, but they do suggest potential limitations on the explanatory scope of the strong hypothesis. 1 Abstract: The evolutionary legacy hypothesis proposes that an evolved reciprocitybased psychology affects human behavior in anonymous one-shot interactions when reciprocity is not explicitly possible. Empirical support rests on experiments showing that altruism among adults increases in the presence of stylized eye spots or faces. Such stimuli do not affect material payoffs, but they are assumed to activate a person's reciprocity-based psychology. We identify two versions of the evolutionary legacy hypothesis. The weak hypothesis posits that reputational concerns can generate altruism in the absence of opportunities for a good reputation. The strong hypothesis posits that reputational concerns alone can explain anonymous one-shot altruism, and they can do so specifically in lieu of a explanations based on group selection. A number of experimental studies support the weak hypothesis but are merely consistent with the strong hypothesis. To address both the weak and strong hypotheses, we conducted an eye spot experiment with children.Altruism can vary by age or sex in childhood, and under the strong hypothesis this kind of variation should reveal associated variation in sensitivity to eye spots.Although we found significant variation in altruism among children, we found no corresponding variation in sensitivity to eye spots. More generally, we found no eye spot effe...

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Reputation

Barclay

2015

The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology

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Humans—like many other organisms—observe others' interactions to gain useful information about who to challenge, avoid, mate with, or cooperate with. Organisms thus benefit from a reputation for being both able and willing to confer benefits on allies and impose costs on competitors. In humans, the existence of language allows for greater spread of information, and has increased the effects that one's reputation has on one's desirability as a partner or fearsomeness as a competitor. This has created selection pressures for high levels of both cooperation and aggression, as well as for behaviors that function to enhance one's own reputation (or decrease the reputation of one's competitors). A better understanding of reputation will allow us to harness social pressures to promote cooperation and decrease aggression, and help build a more comprehensive science of reputation.

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Eye images increase generosity, but not for long: the limited effect of a false cue

Cited by 119 publications

References 46 publications

Wearable computing: Will it make people prosocial?

Wearable computing: Will it make people prosocial?

Eye spots do not increase altruism in children

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