Extracellular vesicles modulate key signalling pathways in refractory wound healing

Abstract

Chronic wounds are wounds that cannot heal properly due to various factors, such as underlying diseases, infection or reinjury, and improper healing of skin wounds and ulcers can cause a serious economic burden. Numerous studies have shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from stem/progenitor cells promote wound healing, reduce scar formation and have significant advantages over traditional treatment methods. EVs are membranous particles that carry various bioactive molecules from their cellular origins, such as cytokines, nucleic acids, enzymes, lipids and proteins. EVs can mediate cell-to-cell communication and modulate various physiological processes, such as cell differentiation, angiogenesis, immune response and tissue remodelling. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in EV-based wound healing, focusing on the signalling pathways that are regulated by EVs and their cargos. We discuss how EVs derived from different types of stem/progenitor cells can promote wound healing and reduce scar formation by modulating the Wnt/β-catenin, phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin, vascular endothelial growth factor, transforming growth factor β and JAK–STAT pathways. Moreover, we also highlight the challenges and opportunities for engineering or modifying EVs to enhance their efficacy and specificity for wound healing.

Hydrogel Loaded with Peptide-Containing Nanocomplexes: Symphonic Cooperation of Photothermal Antimicrobial Nanoparticles and Prohealing Peptides for the Treatment of Infected Wounds

“…The wound healing process is known to be influenced by various cytokines, including those involved in inflammation, chemotaxis, and promoting regeneration. 67 In this study, the expression levels of these cytokines were assessed on the seventh day after wound formation. Immunofluorescence analysis was used to examine the markers for M1 (iNOS, IL-1β) and M2 (Arg-1, CD206) macrophages.…”

Engineered Extracellular Vesicles in Chronic Kidney Diseases: A Comprehensive Review

“…These remarkable cell-derived membranous structures encompass exosomes and microvesicles, each distinctive in its origin and characteristics. 12 Exosomes, typically measuring 30–150 nanometers in diameter, emerge from the endosomal system, originating within multivesicular bodies (MVBs), and are subsequently liberated into the extracellular milieu upon fusion of these MVBs with the cell’s plasma membrane. 13 In contrast, microvesicles, somewhat larger with a size ranging from 100–1000 nanometers, diverge from the endosomal exosome biogenesis route.…”

Insight into the Functional Dynamics and Challenges of Exosomes in Pharmaceutical Innovation and Precision Medicine

“…In a controlled laboratory setting, extraction from one milliliter of cell culture medium frequently results in less than one microgram of exosomal protein [ 29 ]. Strategies to augment exosome production have been explored, encompassing mechanical (e.g., three-dimensional culture systems and the application of shear stress), biochemical (e.g., treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α)), and physical (e.g., thermal stress, hypoxic conditions, and nutrient deprivation) methodologies [ 30 , 31 , 32 ].…”