Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Replication and Pathogenesis and Their Potential Role in Therapeutic Intervention

Abstract

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have shown their potential as a carrier of molecular information, and they have been involved in physiological functions and diseases caused by viral infections. Virus-infected cells secrete various lipid-bound vesicles, including endosome pathway-derived exosomes and microvesicles/microparticles that are released from the plasma membrane. They are released via a direct outward budding and fission of plasma membrane blebs into the extracellular space to either facilitate virus propagation or regulate the immune responses. Moreover, EVs generated by virus-infected cells can incorporate virulence factors including viral protein and viral genetic material, and thus can resemble noninfectious viruses. Interactions of EVs with recipient cells have been shown to activate signaling pathways that may contribute to a sustained cellular response towards viral infections. EVs, by utilizing a complex set of cargos, can play a regulatory role in viral infection, both by facilitating and suppressing the infection. EV-based antiviral and antiretroviral drug delivery approaches provide an opportunity for targeted drug delivery. In this review, we summarize the literature on EVs, their associated involvement in transmission in viral infections, and potential therapeutic implications.

Exploring the utility of extracellular vesicles in ameliorating viral infection-associated inflammation, cytokine storm and tissue damage

“…They have affinity to incorporate virus-fragments, glycan components, proteins, and chunks of viral RNA [5] . EVs, depending on the proteins and genetic content they contain, play a significant role in promoting and suppressing viral infection [ 6 , 7 ]. Both EVs and viruses have the capacity to physically fuse with target cells by membrane endocytosis and incorporate nucleic acids such as RNA into host cells [7] .…”

“…EVs, depending on the proteins and genetic content they contain, play a significant role in promoting and suppressing viral infection [ 6 , 7 ]. Both EVs and viruses have the capacity to physically fuse with target cells by membrane endocytosis and incorporate nucleic acids such as RNA into host cells [7] . In addition, EVs and viruses can illicit immune reactions and/or attenuate inflammation responses in the host [ 7 , 8 ].…”

“…Both EVs and viruses have the capacity to physically fuse with target cells by membrane endocytosis and incorporate nucleic acids such as RNA into host cells [7] . In addition, EVs and viruses can illicit immune reactions and/or attenuate inflammation responses in the host [ 7 , 8 ]. Lastly, EVs are surrounded by lipid membranes similar to enveloped viruses [8] .…”

Challenges in Biomaterial-Based Drug Delivery Approach for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases: Opportunities for Extracellular Vesicles

“…EVs are classified based on the size and biogenesis pathway. The three major classified subgroups of EVs are exosomes, microvesicles (MVs, also called microparticles), and apoptotic bodies, and their internal contents consist of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids [ 60 , 61 ]. Exosomes, MVs, and apoptotic bodies all contain distinct proteins that indicate their biogenic pathways and specific functions [ 62 ].…”

Membrane Microvesicles as Potential Vaccine Candidates

“…Indeed, application of EVs in vaccine delivery might be prospective in treatment of several types of cancers; the mechanisms, advantages, and prospects of EVs as antigen-carrier vaccines in cancer vaccine development have been previously extensively reviewed [ 31 , 32 ]. Furthermore, several studies have also reported the potential applications of EVs in vaccines against infectious diseases [ 33 , 34 ].…”