Externalization vs. internalization: the influence on problem solving performance

Abstract

This research investigates how externalizing information in program-interfaces influences problem solving performance. Externalization as screenrepresentation provides relevant interface-feedback, and remembering certain task-related knowledge becomes unnecessary, relieving working memory (WM). Examples are visual feedback aids such as "graying out" nonapplicable menu-items. Differently, when certain taskrelated information is unavailable, it needs to be internalized, stored in WM. We examined the hypotheses that externalization yields better performance during initial learning, while later, internalization yields better performance and knowledge. Two versions (internalized & externalized) of an isomorph of the "missionaries and cannibals" problem were tested. 30 subjects solved 6 problems, then performed a distraction task erasing WM, and solved 3 more problems. Also knowledge of the problem's rules and states was tested. Internalization yielded better knowledge and reaching less dead-end problem-states. Time needed, steps and error-rates were in the expected direction, but not significantly. This research contributes to GUI design-guidelines for human-computer interaction of problem-solving tasks.

Shifting the paradigm of music instruction: implications of embodiment stemming from an augmented reality guitar learning system

“…But our long-term retention findings differ from those of Van Nimwegen et al ( 2004 ). If the diagram condition, as we posited above, necessitates a greater degree of internalization, then it would have shown better performance on the 2-week retention test (Experiment 2).…”

“…To further elaborate on this idea, recall we discussed that learning techniques that rely on internalization are initially more difficult, but may lead to better long-term retention; whereas, externalized learning techniques may be less beneficial in the long term, but provide a lower level of initial difficulty (Van Nimwegen et al, 2004 ). It may be that learning with the diagram provides a higher degree of internalization when compared to the Fretlight® guitar.…”

“…To better elaborate on the theoretical foundation of embodied music cognition and its relation to augmented music learning systems such as the Fretlight®, an important distinction needs to be made. In terms of learning, researchers have noted that materials and technologies for learning an instrument can emphasize internalized (i.e., use of one's knowledge/skills) and externalized (i.e., available in the environment) modes of learning (Van Nimwegen et al, 2004 ; McDermott et al, 2013 ). Learning techniques that rely on internalization come with a greater initial difficultly for the learner, but lead to better long-term retention.…”

“…Learning techniques that rely on internalization come with a greater initial difficultly for the learner, but lead to better long-term retention. However, although externalized learning techniques may be less beneficial in the long term, they provide a lower level of initial difficulty (Van Nimwegen et al, 2004 ). This is important because, an individual faced with too much initial learning difficulty (e.g., through internalized techniques) may not choose to continue to learn the instrument (McDermott et al, 2013 ).…”

Augmented Reality to Facilitate Learning of the Acoustic Guitar

“…Keebler's study indicates that technology and informal learning environments facilitate learning during initial basic training [6]. Van Nimwegen et al [15] also argue that formal learning techniques prove more difficult for students who are complete beginners. They state that, at times, formal techniques may negatively affect motivation, and argue that even though formal techniques assist students in retaining greater volumes of information in the long run, individuals have a greater tendency to give up and stop learning the instrument [16] when too many obstacles are encountered at the start.…”