External Time Monitoring in Time‐Based Prospective Memory: An Integrative Framework

Abstract

We propose a new integrative framework of external time monitoring in prospective memory (PM) tasks and its relation with performance. Starting from existing empirical regularities and our theoretical analysis, the framework predicts that external monitoring in PM tasks comprises a first stage of loose monitoring to keep track of the passage of time, and a subsequent stage of finer‐grained monitoring, based on interval reduction, to meet the PM deadline. Following our framework, we predicted and observed in three different datasets (N = 375): (1) a marked increase in external monitoring frequency in the final part of the period of the PM task, well captured by a proportional rate exponential growth function; (2) a positive association between individual compliance with this monitoring pattern and PM performance; (3) a positive relation between monitoring frequency in the time window immediately preceding the PM deadline and PM performance at the individual level; and (4) good individual compliance with an interval reduction pattern in external monitoring, especially in the time window closer to the PM deadline. These results support the proposed integrative framework, which has the potential to foster future research on external monitoring in PM and in other fields of cognitive science.

From attentional fluctuations to intentional fluctuations? Monitoring behavior and intraindividual variability in time-based prospective memory.

“…Previous research has shown that checking the clock often and strategically benefit PM accuracy (see Joly-Burra et al, 2022; Munaretto et al, 2022). The last aim of the present article was to assess whether a third indicator of time monitoring, that is slowing OT RTs during the PM response window, also benefited PM performance, and whether time-monitoring behavior came at a cost to OT accuracy.…”

“…As participants approach the PM target time, they repeat these test-wait cycles more frequently until the time matches the PM target time, which acts as a signal to exit the test-wait cycle by performing the PM task (i.e., pressing the PM response key). According to the external time-monitoring framework of Munaretto et al (2022), participants follow a loose time-monitoring pattern at the beginning of the PM time interval, checking the clock rather sparsely to keep track of time without substantially diverting attention away from the OT. Gradually, as the PM target time approaches, participants proceed to a more fine-grained time-monitoring strategy to ensure a timely PM response, where they strongly increase their frequency of clock-checking, following an exponential time-interval reduction function.…”

“…Because participants are expected to redirect their attentional resources from the OT towards time estimation more strongly when approaching the target time and until they give their PM response (Block & Zakay, 2006; Munaretto et al, 2022), we expect these strategic monitoring processes to translate into a slowing of OT RTs during the PM response window. We thus finally aimed to investigate whether OT latencies increase during the PM response window (i.e., the OT trials for which a PM response would be counted as correct), and whether this slowing also relates to both PM and OT accuracies (Aim 4).…”

“…Given that Joly-Burra et al (2022) already reported that higher absolute and relative clock-checking predicted better PM performance in this sample, we expected these results to remain significant while accounting for the effect of slowing, and we additionally expected greater slowing of OT RTs during the PM window to predict better PM performance. Finally, although Munaretto et al (2022) did not formally state nor test the relationship between clock-checking and OT performance, they hypothesized that checking the clock should yield an attentional cost to the OT (also see Einstein & McDaniel, 2010). Thus, following this framework, the more fine-grained monitoring that happens close to the PM target time (i.e., higher strategicness of clock-checking) should lead to a substantial cost to OT, while the loose monitoring during earlier stages should do so to lesser extents.…”

The processing mechanism of mixed prospective memory: Changes in internal and external attention

“…The Integrated Framework believes that prospective memory is influenced by some factors influencing resource requirement for cue detection, among which the predictability of cues affects the allocation of individual attention resources. When cues are predictable, individuals will allocate more attention to the vicinity of prospective memory cues (Munaretto et al, 2022; Zuber & Kliegel, 2020). The Attention to Delayed Intention (AtoDI) model was the first to introduce the concept of internal and external attention.…”