External Exposure to Short- and Medium-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins for the General Population in Beijing, China

Abstract

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are a class of compounds that are currently produced and used in large amounts in commercial products worldwide. In this study, food, indoor air, indoor dust, and drinking water samples were collected to evaluate the external exposure levels of CPs and possible pathway for the general population in Beijing, China. Short chain CPs (SCCPs) and medium chain CPs (MCCPs) in 199 samples were analyzed using a gas chromatography tandem time-of-flight high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-HR-MS) method. High levels of CPs were observed in the indoor environment from residential houses, offices, and student dormitories. The geometric mean concentrations (GM) of ∑SCCPs and ∑MCCPs in indoor dust were 92 μg g and 82 μg g, respectively, while in indoor air, the concentrations were 80 ng m and 3.4 ng m, respectively. The GM of ∑SCCPs and ∑MCCPs in the diet were 83 ng g dry weight (dw) and 56 ng g dw, respectively. The most important external exposure routes to CPs to the general populations in Beijing were food intake and indoor dust ingestion. Indoor dust and indoor air posed higher risks for toddlers and infants than for adults.

Emerging halogenated flame retardants in the indoor environment

“…Likewise, offices and homes had comparably low ∑SCCP concentrations ranging 5-31 and 11-14 µg/g in a limited number of Taiwanese dust samples (n=4) [16]. On the other hand, reported offices to be the least contaminated indoor environments amongst Chinese indoor microenvironments assessed with respect to both SCCP and MCCP homologues [29]. CP levels measured in a limited number of office samples from outside China have usually exceeded levels seen in homes.…”

“…Levels in the dust of Chinese homes have typically exceeded those of samples from North America or Europe, perhaps due to China's role as the world largest CP manufacturer. [29] reported similarly elevated mean ∑SCCP and ∑MCCP levels combined from Chinese homes, workplaces and dormitories of 148 and 139 µg/g, while ∑SCCPs averaged 49 µg/g in dust from Chinese apartments (medians n.a.) [55].…”

“…Similarly, the occurrence and profiles of Cl- median n.a.) [29]. SCCPs were again the most prevalent CPs in air sampled repeatedly from a single office in China over a number of weeks [39].…”

“…The size-distribution of particle-bound CPs in indoor air has also been investigated to reveal that both find that the greatest concentrations occurred in particles of 0.6-1.0 µm [101]. Seasonal effects to CP concentrations in indoor air have also been indicated by one study which found concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs in Chinese homes and offices to be generally higher in summer than winter [29]. Although particle-and gas-phase partitioning of CPs has not yet been explored in indoor air, this appears to suggest that higher temperatures cause a greater release of SCCPs and MCCPs from dust or treated products [29].…”

Spatiotemporal Assessment of Health Burden and Economic Losses attributable to short-term exposure to Ozone During 2015 - 2018 in China

“…The first manual of exposure parameters was published in the United States as early as 1989 [34], while China did not publish the first edition until 2013. Most of the existing studies adopted the parameters of the United States [35,36] or did not consider the modification effect of the parameters on outcomes at all [37,38] ,which may lead to unreliable conclusions. For example, Wang et al had found that if the inhalation rates of the United States were used directly in China, the error would be 2.6% to 30.9%, which would increase the uncertainty of health risk assessment results [39].…”