Exposure of Bald Eagles to Lead on the Northern Channel Islands, California

Pagel, Joel E.; Sharpe, Peter B.; Garcelon, David K.; Little, Annie E.; Taylor, Sharon K.; Faulkner, Kate R.; Gorbics, Carol S.

doi:10.3356/jrr-11-18.1

Cited by 5 publications

(2 citation statements)

References 27 publications

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“…Lead toxicosis is a well‐known source of anthropogenic mortality for bald eagles (Hunt et al 2006, Stauber et al 2010, Pagel et al 2012, Kelly et al 2014, Warner et al 2014). Historically, lead toxicosis in bald eagles was a direct result of the ingestion of lead shot from dead or wounded waterfowl, and was a major factor leading to the ban of lead shot for waterfowl hunting in 1991 (Kendall et al 1996, Friend et al 2009).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Historically, lead toxicosis in bald eagles was a direct result of the ingestion of lead shot from dead or wounded waterfowl, and was a major factor leading to the ban of lead shot for waterfowl hunting in 1991 (Kendall et al 1996, Friend et al 2009). Recently, researchers have linked lead toxicosis in bald eagles to ingested lead fragments embedded in tissues or offal from lost or discarded upland and large game animals (Hunt et al 2006, Pagel et al 2012, Kelly et al 2014, Warner et al 2014). Amplifying this exposure source is the high incidence of lead bullet fissuring upon impact, resulting in fragments of irregular shapes and greater surface areas that dissolve more easily in stomach acids, increasing metal retention and ultimately the magnitude of exposure (Scheuhammer and Templeton 1998, Fisher et al 2006, Hunt et al 2009, Warner et al 2014).…”

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confidence: 99%

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Sources of Mortality in Bald Eagles in Michigan, 1986–2017

et al. 2020

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As bald eagle populations recover, defining major sources of mortality provides managers important information to develop management plans and mitigation efforts. We obtained data from necropsies on 1,490 dead bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) collected in Michigan, USA, conducted from 1986 to 2017 to determine causes of death (COD). Trauma and poisoning were the most common primary COD categories, followed by disease. Within trauma and poisoning, vehicular trauma (n = 532) and lead poisoning (n = 176) were the leading COD subcategories, respectively. Females comprised a greater number of carcasses for most COD diagnoses. The proportion of trauma and poisoning CODs significantly increased in the last few years of the study in comparison to a select few years at the beginning. Trauma CODs were greater in autumn months during whitetail deer (Odocoileus virginianus) breeding and hunting seasons and in February, when aquatic foraging is unavailable and eagles are likely forced to scavenge along roadsides. Poisoning CODs were greatest in late winter and early spring months, when deer carcasses containing lead ammunition, which are preserved by the cold weather, also become a supplemental food source. The major infectious disease CODs, West Nile virus and botulism (Clostridium botulinum type E), were more prevalent during summer months. We recommend moving road‐killed carcasses, especially white‐tailed deer, from the main thoroughfare to the back of the right‐of‐way, and the transition from lead ammunition and fishing tackle to non‐toxic alternatives to decrease these main anthropogenic sources of mortality for bald eagles, and other scavenger species. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.

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