Explosion of a Myth: Quantity of Schooling and Exposure to Instruction, Major Educational Vehicles

Abstract

I n the last few years, we have been inundated with repetitions of a new schooling myth. From the report on Equality of Educational Opportunity (Coleman et al., 1966) and the most recent reanalyses of its data (Mosteller and Moynihan, 1972) to the Jencks et al book onInequality (1972), we have been flooded with reports of the lack of effect of schooling. These reports have discouraged professional educators and comforted those who would reduce the resources allocated to education. Moreover, recent teachers' strikes, response to the "energy" crisis, and budget cutbacks passed on as shorter school years and increased class sizes, all have decreased the amount of schooling and instruction for many pupils in this country. These curtailments did not produce any enraged outcry or concerted action from those who for so long have promoted quality and equality of education. It seems that those concerned have silently joined the chorus performing De Nihilo Nihil. What they do not realize is that they play a part in a new American tragedy.Schooling does have effects and racher than asking if there are any efects of schooling, we should be asking how much of an effect schooling has. If we take a more appropriate stance towards assessing school effects and a fresh look at the above studies, then we not only must conclude that schooling has large effects on pupils' achievements but also must take immediate steps to insure equality and quality of education. The drawbacks that currently result from cutting the amount of schooling are alarming, as we will show. Quantity of SchoolingIt is unwarranted to say that schooling has no effect. Certainly, some children would learn to read even if they did not attend school, and certainly, the school is not effective in teaching reading to some children. However, this does not mean that children do not acquire appreciably better reading skills by attending school. Some children learn to read who would not learn to read if they did not attend school. Some children who would have learned to read anyway, read much more capably because of their schooling. The level of discussion, however, still has not risen above the question: "Does schooling have an effect?" It is the degree of schooling effect that is important for educa-tional policy. For example, if it were found, after a large concentration of resources in reading instruction, that only small gains in levels of competency were attained, then we might be dissatisfied with the return on our investment in this area. In this case, we would perhaps want to understand why there was such a small effect so that we could modify the conditions of our investment, i.e., change the conditions of instruction or perhaps, we might wish to reduce our investment in this area, either so we could improve the yield of the system in another area, where we could produce more valued outcomes with the same amount of resources or invest our resources in non-educational endeavours. To facilitate such educational decision making, we must be able to assess the exten...

Student Learning Time

“…3 However, some studies have shown a substantial relationship between these two variables (Wiley and Harnischfeger, 1974;Kidder, O'Reilly and Kiesling, 1975;Fraser, Walberg, Welch and Hattie, 1987;and Walberg, 1988). Walberg (1988) reviewed more than 100 studies and found that 88% of these showed positive influences of time on learning (Walberg, Niemiec and Frederick, 1994).…”

“…Walberg (1988) reviewed more than 100 studies and found that 88% of these showed positive influences of time on learning (Walberg, Niemiec and Frederick, 1994). Wiley and Harnischfeger (1974) studied 6th Grade students in 40 schools in Detroit, Michigan and found that a 24% increase in time allocation lead to gains of more than a third in mathematics and verbal skills. But Karweit's (1976) analysis of the same data shows that time allocation is no longer statistically significant once differences between urban and rural settings are taken into account.…”

Time as a variable in learning on the World-Wide Web

“…This premise can be supported from at least three different perspectives. Beginning in the 1960s, researchers in education began emphasizing the importance of allocating time for learning (Carroll, 1964;Fisher et al, 1980;Wiley & Harnischfeger, 1974). Stallings (1980) regarded time on task as one of the most useful variables that came out of research on teaching in the 1970s.…”

“…Theoretically, the possibility that learning takes time has been considered from at least three related perspectives-educational (Bloom, 1974;Carroll, 1964;Wiley & Harnischfeger, 1974), cognitive (Ericsson & Charness, 1994;Simon, 1990), and neural (McClelland, McNaughton, & O'Reilly, 1995)-with basic convergence on the conclusion that learning takes place within an extended time period during which information is encoded, rehearsed, elaborated, and consolidated. Walberg (1984) concluded that time was an important factor in learning, on the basis of a macro analysis of nearly 3,000 studies.…”

Absenteeism and Beyond: Instructional Time Loss and Consequences

“…Greenwood 199183. Bloom 1971Fisher and Berliner 1985;Gettinger 1984Gettinger , 1989Rosenshine 1979;Walberg 1988;Wang 1998;Wiley andHarnishfeger 1974 84. Frederick andWalberg 1980, 85.…”