Exploring the nutritional demand for essential fatty acids by aquaculture species

Abstract

Essential fatty acids (EFA) remain one of the least well-understood and enigmatic nutrients in aquaculture nutrition. Of all dietary nutrients none has a greater direct impact on the composition of its consumer. Their importance stems not only to their impact on animal growth, but also to factors such as reproduction, immunity and product quality. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) has consistently been shown to provide the greatest EFA value to most species. However, the nutritional value of eicosapentaenoic (EPA; 20:5n-3) and arachidonic (ARA; 20:4n-6) acids has also been significantly greater than that exhibited by linolenic (LNA; 18:3n-3) and linoleic (LOA; 18:2n-6) acids. All five fatty acids have been shown to provide EFA value to most aquaculture species, although the optimal dietary inclusion levels and balance among the fatty-acid classes (n-3 and n-6) and fatty-acid chain lengths (18-C, 20-C or 22-C) vary among species. Environmental origin (freshwater, estuarine or marine) appears to be a primary factor influencing the difference in EFA requirements. The role that EFA play in osmoregulation clearly shows how these nutrients affect animals from different aquatic environments. The influence of EFA on growth also appears to be greatest in larval fish and crustaceans, possibly because of their reduced ability to digest and absorb lipids, but also because of a proportionally higher demand for EFA in the development of, in particular, neural tissues. Despite an abundance of research since the 1970s on the EFA requirements of aquaculture species there remains a need to better define the EFA requirements of most aquaculture species. Of all major aquaculture species only the penaeid shrimp has a comprehensively documented assessment of its nutritional requirements for EFA. The nutritional requirements for EFA in most fish species have not been comprehensively studied and those species that were fully examined in the 1970s and 1980s now need to be reassessed in light of recent changes to the use of high-nutrient-density diets that were not routinely used in either practice or research during that earlier period. In addition to changes in dietary specification strategies, declining dependence on marine-origin lipid sources in recent years has placed an increased imperative on understanding the dietary need for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (lcPUFA). As aquaculture continues to grow there will be an increased use of alternative lipid resources, such as grain, algal and rendered oils, to provide dietary lipids. In addition to dietary dilution of natural EFA sources through the use of these raw materials, they will also bring new challenges, such as increased levels of n-6 and 18-C polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Introduction of these n-6 and PUFA fatty acids to the diet of aquaculture species will not only influence the nutritional demands of these animals, but will also affect their flesh quality characteristics by reducing their level of n-3 lcPUFA. This dilemma will demand an increased pri...

Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and aquaculture in perspective

“…This is generally the case for most PUFA including EPA, and so oxidation increases with increased dietary concentration, with generally no preferential retention (Stubhaug et al, 2007). The only general exception is DHA that is consistently shown to be deposited in tissues such as flesh and liver at higher levels than dietary inclusion showing it is preferentially retained (Brodtkord et al, 1997;Glencross, 2009). This is likely simply due the fact that the Δ4 double bond in DHA is resistant to mitochondrial β-oxidation, requiring peroxisomal oxidation to be removed, and this means it is not as easily oxidised as other fatty acids (Madsen et al, 1999).…”

“…The physiological EFA requirement is the level to prevent classical nutritional pathology (EFA deficiency signs) and this is low, often around 1 % of the diet, or possibly lower if supplied by LC-PUFA. The published EFA requirement data for fish species probably represent good estimates of this requirement level (Glencross, 2009;Tocher, 2010). However, many early EFA studies were performed in small fish fed diets with relatively low lipid level for relatively short durations at a time when growth expectations were lower.…”

“…The qualitative and quantitative EFA requirements of fish are reported in detail in earlier reviews (Glencross, 2009;Tocher, 2010) and are discussed in detail in the recently updated NRC volume on the Nutrient Requirements of Fish and Shrimp (NRC, 2011). Briefly, EFA requirements can be satisfied generally by C 18 PUFA in freshwater and salmonid species whereas marine species require LC-PUFA, EPA, DHA and ARA (Tocher, 2010).…”

Comparative evaluation of sunflower oil and linseed oil as dietary ingredient for gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) fingerlings

“…Plant/vegetable oils (VO) are promising and sustainable source as FO-substitutes in aquafeeds, because of their wide availability and competitive price although their use is limited by deficiencies in ω-3 LcPUFA essential for carnivorous species. Extensive research effort on the use of vegetable oils as dietary lipid source in compounded aquafeeds for several marine fish species are already ongoing and are reviewed by Turchini et al (2009Turchini et al ( , 2010 and Glencross (2009)…”

“…As sustainable sources of fish oils become more limiting to the expanding demand for aquaculture feeds, there is an increasing imperative to identify alternative lipid resources suitable for use in aquaculture feeds. There are a range of alternatives that have already been examined and each has some potential, although few are ideal and most have little if any LcPUFA content (Glencross, 2009). Plant/vegetable oils (VO) are promising and sustainable source as FO-substitutes in aquafeeds, because of their wide availability and competitive price although their use is limited by deficiencies in ω-3 LcPUFA essential for carnivorous species.…”