“…For example, estimates of intelligence by parents, others, and self can be significantly influenced by factors other than actual cognitive ability, such as gender, culture, and educational background (e.g., Bian et al, 2017;Kirkcaldy et al, 2007;Swami et al, 2009). In addition, knowledge of intellectual disability is low in many staff groups (e.g., Emerson, Baines et al, 2012;McKenzie et al, 2022), suggesting that they may be poor at identifying indicators of intellectual disability. Using more formal measures, such as abbreviated or short forms of intellectual assessments, which have not specifically been designed as intellectual disability screening tools, can also have limitations, as outlined in the introduction.…”