Exploring dual gender typicality among young adults in the United States

Abstract

The goal of the current study was to better understand the development of gender typicality in young adulthood by applying the dual-identity approach to gender typicality, previously developed with children, to a university sample. Participants ( n = 215, Mage = 20.20 years; 62% female) were asked to rate their perceived similarity to both own- and other-gender peers. They also completed questionnaires assessing sexist attitudes, internalized sexualization (females), adherence to male-typed behaviors in the context of interpersonal relationships (males; adherence to physical toughness and restrictive emotional expressivity), gender-based relationship efficacy, friendships, self-esteem, social self-efficacy, and social anxiety. Results indicated that self-perceived gender typicality involves comparisons to both gender groups, and that meaningful typologies can be created based on similarity to own- and other-gender groups. As with children, results indicated that identifying with one’s own gender was advantageous in terms of low social anxiety and relationships with own-gender peers. For adults who identified with both own- and other-gender peers, we identified additional social benefits (i.e., efficacy and friendships with other-gender peers). Further, we identified a downside to own-gender typicality: individuals who identified only with their own gender had more sexist attitudes than those who identified with the other gender. Findings support the viability of the dual-identity approach in young adults, and have implications for researchers assessing gender typicality across development.

Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale: Validation in a Sample of Italian LGB + and Heterosexual Young Adults

“…Gender differences in self-perceived gender typicality were well-documented in literature both in childhood (Doescher & Sugawara, 1990 ; Egan & Perry, 2001 ; Jewell & Brown, 2014 ; Menon, 2011 ; Menon & Hannah-Fisher, 2019 ; Nielson et al, 2020 ; Smith & Leaper, 2006 ; Tam & Brown, 2020 ; Zosuls et al, 2016 ) and in young adulthood (Andrews et al, 2019 ; DiDonato & Berenbaum, 2013 ; Endendijk et al, 2019 ; Lefkowitz & Zeldow, 2006 ) reporting that females showed more flexible attitudes concerning other-gender similarity compared to males (Andrews et al, 2019 ; DiDonato et al, 2012 ; Endendijk et al, 2019 ; Martin et al, 2012 , 2017a , b ; Zosuls et al, 2016 ). Furthermore, studies have investigated the relationship between gender typicality, well-being, academic achievement, and psychosocial adjustment, taking into account gender differences (Carver et al, 2003 ; DiDonato & Berenbaum, 2013 ; Egan & Perry, 2001 ; Jewell & Brown, 2014 ; Lee & Troop-Gordon, 2011 ; Mehta et al, 2017 ; Menon & Hannah-Fisher, 2019 ; Nielson et al, 2020 ; Ueno & McWilliams, 2010 ; Yavorsky & Buchmann, 2019 ).…”

“…In general, young adulthood is a critical life stage for identity construction and definition and gender identity development (Arnett, 2000 ; Barret & White, 2002 ; DiDonato et al, 2012 ; Leaper & Van, 2008 ; Lefkowitz & Zeldon, 2006 ). In these new studies, adults showed less gender similarity to their own gender, and they were more able to identify themselves with other gender than were school-aged children (Andrews et al, 2019 ; Endendijk et al, 2019 ). These results are in line with the cognitive-developmental perspective (Erikson, 1968 ; Kohlberg, 1966 ), which predicts that adults will show a more flexible perception of one’s own gender thanks to the increased cognitive complexity and perspective-taking as compared to children and adolescents (Barret & White, 2002 ; Marcell et al, 2011 ).…”

“…Also, a new, expanded method of assessing gender typicality was recently proposed—a dual-identity approach—in which two types of typicality (called “similarity”) were assessed: feeling similar to one’s own gender and feeling similar to the other gender (Martin et al, 2017a ). The dual-identity approach has been explored among children in the United States (Martin et al, 2017a , b ) and young adults in the United States (Andrews et al, 2019 ) and in the Netherlands (Endendijk et al, 2019 ). Using samples of young adult participants, the goals of the current two studies were the following: study 1: to examine the psychometric properties of the Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups Scale (Martin et al, 2017a ) by investigating dimensions of own- and other-gender similarity and to explore how these dimensions of gender similarity relate to psychological outcomes; study 2: to investigate the distribution of individuals by gender and sexual orientation in four typologies created from these two dimensions of gender similarity.…”

“…Recently, this new approach and measure of gender typicality proposed by Martin and colleagues ( 2017 ) was adapted and validated in young adulthood (Andrews et al, 2019 ; Endendijk et al, 2019 ). In general, young adulthood is a critical life stage for identity construction and definition and gender identity development (Arnett, 2000 ; Barret & White, 2002 ; DiDonato et al, 2012 ; Leaper & Van, 2008 ; Lefkowitz & Zeldon, 2006 ).…”

Associations between quality of parent–child relationships and children's gender typicality: A 4‐year longitudinal study

“…Gender typicality was assessed when children were 11 years old (T2) with an adaptation of the Perceived Similarity to Gender Groups measure (PSGG; Martin et al, 2017). This scale has been used successfully to measure gender typicality in several studies (Andrews et al, 2016; Andrews, Martin, Cook, Field, & England, 2019; Endendijk, Andrews, England, & Martin, 2019; Martin et al, 2017). The PSGG is a graphic and visual measure adapted to young children's comprehension, which assesses gender typicality in terms of how similar children feel to both boys and girls.…”