Exploration as a mediator of the relation between the attainment of motor milestones and the development of spatial cognition and spatial language.

Abstract

The embodied-cognition approach views cognition and language as grounded in daily sensorimotor child-environment interactions. Therefore, the attainment of motor milestones is expected to play a role in cognitive-linguistic development. Early attainment of unsupported sitting and independent walking indeed predict better spatial cognition and language at later ages. However, evidence linking these milestones with the development of spatial language and evidence regarding factors that might mediate this relation are scarce. The current study examined whether exploration of spatial-relational object properties (e.g., the possibility of containing or stacking) and exploration of the space through self-locomotion mediate the effect of, respectively, age of sitting and age of walking on spatial cognition and spatial language. Thus, we hypothesized that an earlier age of sitting and walking predicts, respectively, higher levels of spatial-relational object exploration and exploration through self-locomotion, which in turn, predict better spatial cognition and spatial language at later ages. Fifty-nine Dutch children took part in a longitudinal study. A combination of tests, observations, and parental reports was used to measure motor development, exploratory behavior (age 20 months), spatial memory (age 24 months), spatial processing (age 32 months), and spatial language (age 36 months). Results show that attainment of sitting predicted spatial memory and spatial language, but spatial-relational object exploration did not mediate these effects. Attainment of independent walking predicted spatial processing and spatial language, and exploration through self-locomotion (partially) mediated these relations. These findings extend previous work and provide partial support for the hypotheses about the mediating role of exploration.

Preschoolers' cognitive and emotional self‐regulation in pretend play: Relations with executive functions and quality of play

“…The average number of targets identified across three trials was scored. Visuospatial short-term memory was assessed with a memory for location task in which children had to remember the location of hidden toys (Oudgenoeg-Paz, Volman, & Leseman, 2015;Pelphrey et al, 2004;Vicari, Caravale, Carlesimo, Casadei, & Allemand, 2004). Six identical white boxes were used as hiding locations.…”

Toddler hand preference trajectories predict 3‐year language outcome

“…The later shift from crawling to walking has been linked to cascading shifts in how infants interact with caregivers, as well as changes in how caregivers in turn respond to their infants (Campos et al, ; Clearfield, ; Karasik, Tamis‐LeMonda, & Adolph, , , ). Finally, it has been shown that infants and toddlers who demonstrate proficiency in a motor skill (i.e., attainment of independent sitting or walking; greater motor control) are more likely to exhibit advanced language skills (Alcock & Krawczyk, ; He, Walle, & Campos, ; Libertus & Violi, ; Oudgenoeg‐Paz, Leseman, & Volman, ; Oudgenoeg‐Paz, Volman, & Leseman, ; Walle, ; Walle & Campos, ; Walle & Warlaumont, ; Wang, Lekhal, Aaro, & Schjolberg, ).…”

The ecology of infants’ perceptual-motor exploration

“…Earlier sitting onsets predict better spatial memory at 24 months [29]. Although object exploration at 20 months failed to mediate this e↵ect, exploratory di↵erences earlier in infancy might account for it.…”

“…The attainment of sitting, crawling, and walking have downstream e↵ects on object perception [9] and spatial cognition [8,29]. Infants' ability to sit independently facilitates visual-manual exploration of objects [13,14], which, in turn, facilitates object perception [9].…”