Exploration and learning in capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.): the role of action–outcome contingencies

Abstract

Animals have a strong propensity to explore the environment. Spontaneous exploration has a great biological signifcance since it allows animals to discover and learn the relation between specifc behaviours and their consequences. The role of the contingency between action and outcome for learning has been mainly investigated in instrumental learning settings and much less in free exploration contexts. We tested 16 capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) with a mechatronic platform that allowed complex modules to be manipulated and to produce different outcomes. Experimental subjects could manipulate the modules and discover the contingencies between their own specifc actions and the outcomes produced (i.e., the opening and lighting of a box). By contrast, Control subjects could operate on the modules but the outcomes experienced were those performed by their paired Experimental subjects ("yoked-control" paradigm). In the Exploration Phase, in which no food reward was present, Experimental subjects spent more time on the board and manipulated the modules more than Yoked subjects. Experimental subjects outperformed Yoked subjects in the following Test phase, where success required recalling the effective action so to open the box, now baited with food. These fndings demonstrate that the opportunity to experience action-outcome contingencies in the absence of extrinsic rewards promotes capuchins' exploration and facilitates learning processes. Thus, this intrinsically motivated learning represents a powerful mechanism allowing the acquisition of skills and cognitive competence that the individual can later exploit for adaptive purposes.

Technology advancing the study of animal cognition: using virtual reality to present virtually simulated environments to investigate nonhuman primate spatial cognition

“…Exploration of novel environments can be highly rewarding, even when presented virtually ( Polizzi di Sorrentino et al 2014 ). In some cases, nonhuman animal exploration of the technology is of equal value in its novelty, and can also be enriching.…”

Does Presentation Format Influence Visual Size Discrimination in Tufted Capuchin Monkeys (Sapajus spp.)?

“…Moreover, computerised procedures can allow to completely prevent experimenter biases. On the other hand, these types of procedures are almost exclusively administered by using images presented on a computer screen, with only very few exceptions involving, for example, computerised procedures where individuals are required to manipulate mechatronic objects [ 40 ] or to manipulate a joystick device controlling a projected laser dot in order to select food items [ 41 ].…”

The interplay of prior experience and motivation in great ape problem-solving (Gorilla gorilla, Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, and Pongo abelii).

“…Several nonhuman primate species, in particular, display a strong disposition to manipulate objects, with great apes, capuchins, and baboons showing the greatest interest and most diverse manipulations (Glickman & Sroges, 1966; Tomasello & Call, 1997; Torigoe, 1985; Welker, 1956). Exploration of objects does not necessarily yield an immediate extrinsic reward (e.g., in the form of food), but it may enhance future problem-solving performance (Gajdon, Lichtnegger, & Huber, 2014; Polizzi di Sorrentino et al, 2014; Taffoni et al, 2014) and might be an essential component of flexible tool use (Call, 2013). In fact, learning about action–outcome contingencies during exploration may facilitate a much broader application of this knowledge compared with situations in which the knowledge was acquired while obtaining a tangible reward such as food (Call, 2013).…”

“…Intrinsic motivation may stimulate exploration of novel objects and novel environments when individuals are in a relaxed state (Hughes, 1997). Knowledge gained in such situations may enhance future problem-solving performance (Birch, 1945a; Polizzi di Sorrentino et al, 2014), as this type of knowledge is less tied to a specific situation, and it might be especially useful when encountering novel problems (Call, 2013). However, few studies have investigated the relationship between exploration and problem-solving.…”

“…Despite these suggestive results, the fact that all keas received the same presentation order of the conditions means that subjects may have also solved the task without a prior exploratory phase. Polizzi di Sorrentino et al (2014) used a superior design by confronting capuchin monkeys with a mechatronic board at which they could perform diverse actions that resulted in predictable outcomes in one group (i.e., the same actions led to the same outcomes) and in arbitrary outcomes in the other group (i.e., the same actions led to different outcomes; see also Taffoni et al, 2014, for a similar study with human children). For example, pushing a specific button caused a specific visual (i.e., light) and auditory (i.e., tone) response for one group, whereas it caused varying visual and auditory responses in the other group.…”