Explaining the nature of power: a three-process theory

Abstract

Power is an inescapable feature of human social life and structure. This paper addresses the nature of power. The standard theory is that power is the capacity for influence and that influence is based on the control of resources valued or desired by others. However, there have always been problems with this theory and new ones have appeared. The paper summarizes the standard theory and its problems, outlines the different meanings of power and presents a new theory emphasizing group identity, social organization and ideology rather than dependence as the basis of power. It proposes that power is based on persuasion, authority and coercion. A key point is that the theory changes the way these processes have been understood by reversing the causal sequence of the standard theory. The latter argues that control of resources produces power, power is the basis of influence and that mutual influence leads to the formation of a psychological group. The three-process theory argues that psychological group formation produces influence, that influence is the basis of power and that power leads to the control of resources. Implications of the theory for social change, coercion, prejudice and the extent to which power is a social evil are briefly noted. The challenge is to study how power emerges from and functions within social relationships with a definite social, ideological and historical content rather than reifying it as an abstract external force producing generic psychological effects.

Critique and review of leader–member exchange theory: Issues of agreement, consensus, and excellence

“…Early work on Social Identity Theory (SIT; Tajfel & Turner, 1986) explored how individuals develop a social identity on the basis of salient aspects of their group identity (e.g., race, gender, or ethnicity) and the consequences this has on interactions within and between groups. In the context of leadership, SIT has been used to explain how leaders emerge ) and why they are granted power (Turner, 2005). Both results can be achieved by contributing to establishing in followers a feeling of importance of belonging to a particular group.…”

Ideal selves as identity management strategies

“…We would rather argue that seeing status differences as "illegitimate will contain the seeds of instability" only if changes in the intergroup relations are perceived as achievable in the future. The latter might depend on the perceptions of the social power at stake (e.g., Simon & Oakes, 2006;Turner, 2005).…”

Why people resort to coercion: the role of utility and legitimacy

“…Turner (2005) for instance argues that coercion happens when one cannot influence (i.e., persuade others, realize cognitive change) or claim legitimate authority rights (based on voluntary deference of the target). He proposes that coercion is more likely when shared identity based persuasion fails or is unlikely to happen (cf.…”

“…While it seems unlikely that such identity mechanisms were at play in the present study (i.e., coercion differed markedly between the outcome to self and the outcome to other conditions, but it seems implausible that these conditions differed in the level of shared identity), exploring identity dynamics seems a worthwhile avenue for future research. Turner (2005) also asserts that coercion leads to further disidentification, increased social distance and conflict, and that it reduces the chance that the power wielder will ever be able to influence or claim authority rights again. Interestingly, recent empirical studies suggest important qualifications to this general proposition.…”