“…Gray brick is an ancient building material made of clay fired at high temperature [ 1 ], which has the characteristics of high porosity, loose texture, low strength, strong water absorption and poor frost resistance [ 2 , 3 ] As the gray bricks are exposed to the open environment for a long time, they are vulnerable to the effects of rain, snow, temperature, seasonal freeze–thaw cycles and other climatic conditions, resulting in different degrees of weathering damage on their surfaces, such as pulverization, desquamation and cracks. Among them, the effect of freeze–thaw cycles in reducing the stability of these materials and causing their premature failure cannot be ignored [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. In addition, the influences of groundwater, seepage and environmental humidity give rise to fluctuations in the moisture content within the bricks, resulting in variations in water content [ 8 , 9 ].…”