Experimental and Modeling Study of the Flammability of Fuel Tank Headspace Vapors from Ethanol/Gasoline Fuels, Phase 2: Evaluations of Field Samples and Laboratory Blends

Gardiner, David; Bardon, M. F.; LaViolette, M.

doi:10.2172/975389

Cited by 3 publications

(9 citation statements)

References 7 publications

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“…The fuel samples were produced in a laboratory to systematically investigate the effects of varying ethanol content on the volatility and flammability of the resulting blends. There were three sets of ethanol/gasoline blends (including the partial set originally evaluated during the Phase 2 study [2]), which were all provided and characterized by Marathon Petroleum Company, and are referred to throughout this report as "laboratory samples". The blend matrix was comprised of three gasoline vapor pressure levels (83.0 kPa (12.04 psi) DVPE, 89.2 kPa (12.94 psi) DVPE, and 101.2 kPa (14.68 psi) DVPE) and seven different blend levels (E0, E15, E55, E60, E68, E75, and E83).…”

Section: Forewordmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The project described in this report was carried out to examine the potential for flammable fuel/air mixtures to form in fuel tanks containing blends of ethanol and gasoline. The current project followed two earlier projects [1,2] in which an experimental technique and a mathematical model were developed to investigate the flammability issue. The ethanol/gasoline blends evaluated in the first project were experimental fuels originally produced for vehicle driveability studies.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The new fuel blends were evaluated at nominal ethanol/gasoline blend levels of E0 (base gasoline), E15, E55, E60, E68, E75 and E83. Furthermore, the 89.2 kPa (12.94 psi) DVPE gasoline (typical winter volatility) used previously in the Phase 2 study [2] was evaluated as E0 and E15 blends, as these blend levels had not been evaluated in the earlier study.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The current report presents the results for all three sets of blends (using low, typical, and high vapor pressure base gasolines), and as such, includes some of the data originally published in the Phase 2 report [2]. Investigations involving these fuels were intended to provide information to guide future fuel specifications.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The following background information was presented earlier in reference [2]. It has been included in the present report for the convenience of the reader.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Experimental and Modeling Study of the Flammability of Fuel Tank Headspace Vapors from Ethanol/Gasoline Fuels; Phase 3: Effects of Winter Gasoline Volatility and Ethanol Content on Blend Flammability; Flammability Limits of Denatured Ethanol

Gardiner¹,

Bardon²,

Clark³

2011

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Background The flammability of a fuel blend in the head space of a storage tank is controlled by the vapor pressure of the blend. Conventional gasolines are so volatile that the headspace vapors are normally too rich to sustain combustion at most ambient temperatures. Only under very cold conditions does the vapor-air mixture in the tank become flammable. Because of its different vapor pressure and stoïchiometry, pure ethanol produces vapor-air mixtures in the tank that are flammable over a wide range of ambient temperatures. Blends of ethanol and gasoline form non-ideal mixtures in which the gasoline components render the vapor-air mixture in a tank too rich for combustion at warm temperatures. Like gasoline, as temperature drops, the vapor-air mixture becomes leaner and eventually falls into the flammable region. However, the mixture becomes flammable at higher temperatures than conventional gasoline, and so presents a hazard over a greater range of conditions if a suitable ignition source is present. Objectives of the Work Reported The mission of the US Department of Energy's Clean Cities program is to advance the energy, economic, and environmental security of the United States by supporting local decisions to adopt practices that reduce the use of petroleum in the transportation sector. Part of this program includes the replacement of petroleum by alternative and renewable fuels.

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Section: Forewordmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The following background information was presented earlier in reference [2]. It has been included in the present report for the convenience of the reader.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Experimental and Modeling Study of the Flammability of Fuel Tank Headspace Vapors from Ethanol/Gasoline Fuels; Phase 3: Effects of Winter Gasoline Volatility and Ethanol Content on Blend Flammability; Flammability Limits of Denatured Ethanol

Gardiner¹,

Bardon²,

Clark³

2011

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Renewable Oxygenate Blending Effects on Gasoline Properties

et al. 2011

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The oxygenates ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 1-butanol, 2-butanol, 2-methyl-1-propanol (isobutanol), 1-pentanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol (isopentanol), methyl levulinate, ethyl levulinate, butyl levulinate, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF), 2-methylfuran (MF), and 2,5-dimethylfuran (DMF) were blended in three gasoline blendstocks for oxygenate blending (BOBs) at levels up to 3.7 wt % oxygen. Chemical and physical properties of the blends were compared to the requirements of ASTM specification D4814 for spark-ignited engine fuels to determine their utility as gasoline extenders. Vapor pressure, vapor lock protection, distillation, density, octane rating, viscosity, and potential for extraction into water were measured. Blending of ethanol at 3.7% oxygen increased vapor pressure by 5–7 kPa as expected. 2-Propanol slightly increased vapor pressure in the lowest-volatility BOB, while all other oxygenates caused a reduction in vapor pressure of up to 10 kPa. Coefficients for the Wilson equation were fitted to the measured vapor pressure data and were shown to adequately predict the vapor pressure of oxygenate–gasoline blends for five individual alcohols and MTHF in different gasolines. Higher alcohols and other oxygenates generally improved vapor lock protection. Butyl levulinate blended at 2.7% oxygen caused the distillation end point to exceed 225 °C, thus failing the specification. Distillation parameters were within specification limits for the other oxygenates tested. Other than ethanol, MF, and DMF, the oxygenates examined will not produce blends with satisfactory octane ratings at these blend levels when blended into lower-octane blendstocks designed for ethanol blending. However, all oxygenates tested except 1-pentanol and MTHF produced an increase in octane rating. For ethanol, the propanol isomers, and methyl levulinate, 20 wt % or more of the oxygenate could be extracted into water in a room-temperature water tolerance experiment. For the butanol isomers and ethyl levulinate, the percent extracted ranged from about 4% to 8%. Extraction for other oxygenates was 2% or lower. Methyl levulinate separates from gasoline as a separate liquid phase at temperatures below 0 °C.

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Vapour Space Flammability Considerations for Gasoline Compression Ignition Vehicles Operating on “Dieseline” Blends.

Cracknell

Bardon

Gardiner

et al. 2016

SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr.

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Experimental and Modeling Study of the Flammability of Fuel Tank Headspace Vapors from Ethanol/Gasoline Fuels, Phase 2: Evaluations of Field Samples and Laboratory Blends

Cited by 3 publications

References 7 publications

Experimental and Modeling Study of the Flammability of Fuel Tank Headspace Vapors from Ethanol/Gasoline Fuels; Phase 3: Effects of Winter Gasoline Volatility and Ethanol Content on Blend Flammability; Flammability Limits of Denatured Ethanol

Experimental and Modeling Study of the Flammability of Fuel Tank Headspace Vapors from Ethanol/Gasoline Fuels; Phase 3: Effects of Winter Gasoline Volatility and Ethanol Content on Blend Flammability; Flammability Limits of Denatured Ethanol

Renewable Oxygenate Blending Effects on Gasoline Properties

Vapour Space Flammability Considerations for Gasoline Compression Ignition Vehicles Operating on “Dieseline” Blends.

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