Expanding Red Clover (Trifolium pratense) Usage in the  Corn–Soy–Wheat Rotation

Wyngaarden, Sara; Gaudin, Amélie C. M.; Deen, William M.

doi:10.3390/su71115487

Cited by 21 publications

(23 citation statements)

References 62 publications

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“…Cover crops are presently being integrated into the temperate North American cash crop production systems [18,19]. In this region, cash crop farming mainly consists of planting corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merril] in a 2 year rotation (e.g., CS rotation) or alternatively, corn, soybean,…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This creates potential for using cover crops to produce ecosystem services or to mitigate ecosystem dis-services associated with existing cropping system(s) [20]. Some examples of cover crops used in the region are: 1) red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), frost-seeded into winter wheat [18,19,21], which can be terminated in late fall (or can be over-wintered under no-till condition), with corn planted in the following spring, and 2) oats (Avena sativa L.), seeded after winter wheat or cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) sown after corn or soybean, which are terminated in late-fall (i.e., November) or the following spring (i.e., April-May) prior to planting another main crop, usually corn or soybean [22,23].Planting a single species of the cover crop has both benefits and disadvantages. Cover crop species such as oats and cereal rye produce excellent amounts of aboveground biomass, and they appear to be economic (e.g., low seed cost and high availability).…”

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confidence: 99%

“…In addition, it over-winters (i.e., new growth can be seen in the spring) and produces higher quality biomass (with a lower C:N ratio) compared to non-N-fixing grasses. The drawback associated with red clover is its non-uniform stand establishment, low volume of biomass produced, and high seed cost compared to grass cover crops such as oats and cereal rye [19,25,27]. Similarly, forage radish (Raphanus sativus L. var.…”

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confidence: 99%

“…longipinnatus) can be an excellent weed suppressor, and it reduces soil compaction; but it does not over-winter and hence does not provide a living root system or residue cover in the spring [28]. Hence, no single species can deliver all the benefits looked for in a cover crop, and therefore, planting of cover crop mixtures is gaining increasing attention to harness the complementary benefits of different cover crop species [20,29,30].The literature shows that growers have traditionally used single cover crops [18,19,21,22]. However, farmer groups and the private sector are expressing greater interest in multi-mix cover crops [26,31].…”

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confidence: 99%

“…The literature shows that growers have traditionally used single cover crops [18,19,21,22]. However, farmer groups and the private sector are expressing greater interest in multi-mix cover crops [26,31].…”

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confidence: 99%

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The Potential of Multi-Species Mixtures to Diversify Cover Crop Benefits

2020

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Cover crops provide a range of well-documented benefits to growers and the environment. However, no single species can deliver all of these benefits, and hence planting mixtures is gaining increasing attention. To the best of our knowledge, there is no comprehensive review on different multi-mix strategies. This article reviews available studies on multi-mixes, focusing on temperate North America, and discusses objective criteria for selecting components of a multi-mix and what future research is needed. Very few peer-reviewed studies on multi-mixes are currently available; a diversity of species compositions is being tested with a wide range of potential benefits but also with various limitations. Selection of species in multi-mixes is based on different criteria that help improve multiple ecosystem services. An emerging concept is the importance of selecting cover crop species with functional complementarity rather than simply increasing the number of species. Based on this concept, objective criteria have been developed to select the species for a multi-mix: grower objectives/primary purpose of planting the cover crop, crop rotation and cropping system compatibility, above and belowground compatibility, complementarity of different ecosystem functions, compatibility with the growing environment, duration for cover crop growth, termination option(s) available, input/labour costs, planting equipment required, persistence/weediness, and potential net economic returns. We propose a step-wise procedure to develop effective multi-species mixtures. The number of species and their ratio in the mixtures will depend on objective criteria, and hence long-term research is required to assess different species compositions and their impacts.Sustainability 2020, 12, 2058 2 of 16 and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in a 3 year rotation system (e.g., CSW rotation). Unfortunately, from August to April, depending on the cash crop, the ground is often bare. This creates potential for using cover crops to produce ecosystem services or to mitigate ecosystem dis-services associated with existing cropping system(s) [20]. Some examples of cover crops used in the region are: 1) red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), frost-seeded into winter wheat [18,19,21], which can be terminated in late fall (or can be over-wintered under no-till condition), with corn planted in the following spring, and 2) oats (Avena sativa L.), seeded after winter wheat or cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) sown after corn or soybean, which are terminated in late-fall (i.e., November) or the following spring (i.e., April-May) prior to planting another main crop, usually corn or soybean [22,23].Planting a single species of the cover crop has both benefits and disadvantages. Cover crop species such as oats and cereal rye produce excellent amounts of aboveground biomass, and they appear to be economic (e.g., low seed cost and high availability). However, they also come with certain drawbacks, e.g., they are not nitrogen-fixing; the biomass contains a higher C:N ratio compared...

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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The Potential of Multi-Species Mixtures to Diversify Cover Crop Benefits

2020

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Effect of mono‐, relay‐, and double‐crop systems on yield and profitability

et al. 2021

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Diversification and intensification of cropping systems are of interest due to the potential for increased farm income. However, yield and profitability of multi-crop systems need to be understood, especially in northern environments where the growing season is short. The objective of this study was to evaluate yield and profitability of monocrop (MC), relay-intercrop (RI), and double-crop (DC) systems. A 3-yr field study was conducted in northwest Ohio with nine cropping systems, including winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), red clover (Trifolium pretense L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), and oat (Avena sativa L.) grown in MC, RI, and DC systems. System yield was calculated by summing crop yield within a cropping year. Cropping system profitability was estimated by subtracting costs that varied across treatments from gross revenue. Winter wheat + RI red clover had the highest system yield (11.1-11.4 Mg ha −1 yr −1 ). However, profit was the greatest with wheat planted in wide row (38 cm row width) + RI red clover cropping system ($1,252 ha −1 yr −1 ) followed by wheat planted in narrow row (19 cm row width) + RI red clover ($1,140 ha −1 yr −1 ) and MC soybean ($919 ha −1 yr −1 ). This suggests that producers interested in diversifying their cropping systems may increase profitability with a winter wheat + RI red clover system, provided there is a market for red clover forage. However, if producers do not have a market for red clover, the MC soybean system would offer greatest profitability and reduce workload compared with a multi-crop system.

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Intercropping red clover with intermediate wheatgrass suppresses weeds without reducing grain yield

et al. 2021

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Intermediate wheatgrass (IWG) [Thinopyrum intermedium (Host) Barkworth & Dewey] is the first commercially produced perennial grain crop in the United States. Intercropping legumes with IWG has the potential to enhance dual‐purpose grain and forage production and contribute to weed control in organic management systems. We compared IWG with annual winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in monoculture and intercropped with red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) in a 3‐yr experiment in central New York. Grain yield of IWG was lower than wheat in all years, partly due to lower tiller fertility and seed size in IWG. Compared with grain yield of 1,212 kg ha–1 in the first year, IWG grain yield was 83% (202 kg ha–1) and 64% lower (441 kg ha–1) in the second and third years, respectively. Intermediate wheatgrass straw production increased 40% from 5,541 to 7,785 kg ha–1 over 3 yr while wheat straw yield declined from 5,167 to 3,533 kg ha–1. Red clover did not affect grain or straw yield of either crop but reduced weed biomass and weed species richness. Weed communities in IWG plots were dominated by perennial grasses by the second year of production, whereas annual weeds were dominant in wheat throughout the experiment. Preventing establishment of perennial weeds that will persist in perennial grain cropping systems should be a management priority. High forage production observed when comparing IWG and wheat suggest opportunities for including IWG in integrated crop–livestock systems where IWG's higher forage yield and quality has higher utility.

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Expanding Red Clover (Trifolium pratense) Usage in the Corn–Soy–Wheat Rotation

Cited by 21 publications

References 62 publications

The Potential of Multi-Species Mixtures to Diversify Cover Crop Benefits

The Potential of Multi-Species Mixtures to Diversify Cover Crop Benefits

Effect of mono‐, relay‐, and double‐crop systems on yield and profitability

Intercropping red clover with intermediate wheatgrass suppresses weeds without reducing grain yield

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