Expanding exotic forestry and the expansion of a competing use for rural land in New Zealand

Plantations and social conflict: exploring the differences between small-scale and large-scale plantation forestry

“…They are either: (i) of introduced species (all planted stands), or (ii) intensively managed stands of indigenous species, which meet all the following criteria: one or two species at plantation, even age class, regular spacing.' 4 Concerns and conflict have been documented in nations and regions including Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Finland, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Kenya, Laos, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Noumea, Palestine, Paraguay, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Senegal, South Africa, Spain, Tanzania, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela, Vietnam (see for example Friends of the Earth n.d., Le Heron and Roche 1985;Lowe et al 1986;Tompkins 1986;Mather and Murray 1988;Neeson 1991;Cohen 1993;Groome 1993;Lara and Veblen 1993;Pereira 1993;Christensen 1994;Marchak 1995;Selby and Petajisto 1995;Carrere and Lohmann 1996;Robbins 1998;Spinelli 1998;WRM 1999;Garcia Perez and Groome 2000;Linnard 2000;Williams 2000;Elands and Wiersum 2001;Tewari 2001;Tonts et al 2001;Wilkinson and Drielsma 2001;FAO 2002;Lang 2002;Schirmer 2002;Barlow and Cocklin 2003;Cossalter and Pye-Smith 2003). traditional agricultural activities in what is commonly termed 'farm forestry' or 'agroforestry' (e.g., Petheram et al 2000;Tonts et al 2001, Schirmer 2002.…”

Grassland revolutions in New Zealand: Disaggregating a national story

“…Not all farmers embraced the plan and government was forced to revise its incentives and policies because the aggregate response from farming fell short of its targets (Le Heron 1989a, p. 27; Le Heron 1989b). Some farmers invested in forestry, horticulture, alternative livestock, or crop production for livestock feed or for sale (Le Heron & Roche 1985), while others subdivided their farms into lifestyle or suburban lots. These shifts in land use continued after 1984 when the removal of farm subsidies produced significant environmental and social costs, especially in hill country districts (Smith & Montgomery 2003, cf.…”

Rapid Reregulation, Agricultural Restructuring, and the Reimaging of Agriculture in New Zealand1

“…Thus, changing color specifications for apples now has more to do with the consumption value of apples as "fresh and natural " food than with horticultural production imperatives, while local grower experiences in the Hawkes Bay (the region that accounts for about half of production) with hail damage, especially in 1994 and 1996, has forced growers to more directly bear the risks, both financial and biophysical, of producing for a global market (Le Heron and Roche 1995) . The uncertainties of biophysical risk took on trans-Tasman proportions in 1997 when New Zealand scientists accused Australia of unwittingly harboring fire blight.…”

“…This social revaluing process is simultaneously a differentiating and a repositioning process, which demands a reassessment of prevailing social practices and widespread experimentation, adoption, and evaluation of practices thought better suited to new times (Hayward et al . 1998 ;Le Heron and Roche 1985).…”