Exosomes: Emerging implementation of nanotechnology for detecting and managing novel corona virus- SARS-CoV-2

Abstract

The spread of SARS-CoV-2 as an emerging novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) had progressed as a worldwide pandemic since the end of 2019. COVID-19 affects firstly lungs tissues which are known for their very slow regeneration. Afterwards, enormous cytokine stimulation occurs in the infected cells immediately after a lung infection which necessitates good management to save patients. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles of nanometric size released by reticulocytes on maturation and are known to mediate intercellular communications. The exosomal cargo serves as biomarkers in diagnosing various diseases; moreover, exosomes could be employed as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems. Exosomes look promising to combat the current pandemic since they contribute to the immune response against several viral pathogens. Many studies have proved the potential of using exosomes either as viral elements or host systems that acquire immune-stimulatory effects and could be used as a vaccine or drug delivery tool. It is essential to stop viral replication, prevent and reverse the massive storm of cytokine that worsens the infected patients’ situations for the management of COVID-19. The main benefits of exosomes could be; no cells will be introduced, no chance of mutation, lack of immunogenicity and the damaged genetic material that could negatively affect the recipient is avoided. Additionally, it was found that exosomes are static with no ability for in vivo reproduction. The current review article discusses the possibilities of using exosomes for detecting novel coronavirus and summarizes state of the art concerning the clinical trials initiated for examining the use of COVID-19 specific T cells derived exosomes and mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes in managing COVID-19.

Naturally Equipped Urinary Exosomes Coated Poly (2−ethyl−2−oxazoline)−Poly (D, L−lactide) Nanocarriers for the Pre−Clinical Translation of Breast Cancer

“…Interestingly, the expression levels of CD9 and CD47 in breast cancer patients were obviously higher than those in normal people ( Figure 1 C). These results are in accordance with previous reports [ 20 ] and reveal that UEPP−D NPs can efficiently target the tumor cells by virtue of CD9 while CD47 up−regulation exposed the fact that UEPP−D NPs can be able to escape the macrophages uptake [ 1 ]. The up−regulation of these membrane proteins in UEs might be the key factor for homologous tumor targeting and anti−phagocytosis.…”

“…Recently, exosome−based biomimetic nanoparticles have acquired considerably enormous attention as efficient drug delivery systems. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles secreted by nearly all cells with an average size ranging from 40 to 200 nm [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ] and have been used as attractive biomimetic materials owing to their biocompatibility, longevity in circulation, low immunogenicity, and side−toxicity. Furthermore, exosomes have shown higher cellular uptake and targeting abilities owing to the proteins expressed on their surfaces.…”

Conventional and Novel Diagnostic Tools for the Diagnosis of Emerging SARS-CoV-2 Variants

“…Along with being the cargo for transport of proteins, enzymes, and other components, these were recently found to be carrying components of invading viral species such as SARS-CoV-2 from an infected cell to a healthy one, thus spreading the infection. The tetraspanin CD9 and TMPRSS2 molecules, present on the surface of exosomes, facilitate the entry of coronavirus in lung cells by cleaving the fusion glycoproteins [ 158 , 159 , 160 ].…”

“…As these exosomes are present in all types of body fluids, they can be used as biomarkers in the detection of a viral disease [ 160 ]. Different researchers have found out that in pathological conditions, such as Tuberculosis, Hepatitis A and C, and HIV-AIDS, the transfer of the pathogen from the infected cell to a healthy one takes place via the help of exosomes [ 160 , 161 ].…”

Impact of Staining Methods and Human Factors on Accuracy of Manual Reticulocyte Enumeration

“…During the mechanosensitive ion channel PIEZO1-mediated maturation process [ 4 ], reticulocytes reduce their plasma membrane by 20% and remove their residual internal organelles through lysosomal protein degradation, autophagy, vesiculation [ 5 ], and cytoskeleton rearrangement [ 6 ]. In the maturation process, reticulocytes also release exosomes that have been found to mediate intercellular communications and may also play a diagnostic role in viral infections (e.g., COVID-19) [ 7 ]. Their characteristic network of ribosomal RNA gives them their reticulo-filamentous appearance [ 5 ].…”