Examining the Impact of a Third Culture Kid Upbringing: Wellbeing, Attachment and Ethnic Identity Strength in Adult Third Culture Kids

Abstract

Third Culture Kids (TCK) are generally considered to be children who spend a significant period living outside of their home country but reside only temporarily in one or more host country/ies. TCKs’ upbringing, it is argued, may lead to a number of negative psychological outcomes including depression, anxiety, and identity and attachment issues. This quantitative study based on a total of 489 participants compares the self-report responses of adults who had been TCKs with those of non-TCK adults, on the measures of ethnic identity, wellbeing, loneliness, attachment, resilience, and self-concept clarity. Results indicate that TCK adults had a weaker ethnic identity, greater resilience, and were less comfortable forming close relationships than non-TCK adults. Among TCK adults, having siblings was associated with reduced attachment anxiety and greater resilience, while practising a religion was related to increased ethnic identity. Findings indicate the need to raise awareness among parents, teachers, and counsellors about the difficulties that TCKs might face.

Parenting in diaspora: A Japanese case study of sojourners and stayers in Western Australia

“…Similarly, TCKs develop cultural adaptability as a tool to navigate the frequent change of cultures. Spending time observing what is going on, they can easily switch language, and cultural practices to take on the characteristics needed to blend [34] .…”