Evolutionary history of the Paradoxurus palm civets – a new model for Asian biogeography

Abstract

Aim Using molecular data and dental features, we investigated the genetic and morphological diversity among species of palm civets in the genus Paradoxurus, with a focus on the common palm civet, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Carnivora, Viverridae), in order to address biogeographic scenarios and provide recommendations for a taxonomic revision.Location Asia: Pakistan to the Lesser Sunda Islands.Methods We investigated the genetic diversity within Paradoxurus using two mitochondrial (cytochrome b, control region) and one nuclear (intron 7 of the b-fibrinogen) markers. We used samples from 85 individuals of P. hermaphroditus (including 20 museum specimens) and one representative of each of the other species in the genus Paradoxurus: Paradoxurus jerdoni and Paradoxurus zeylonensis. DNA sequences were analysed using phylogenetic and haplotype network methods, and divergence dates were estimated for the clades retrieved. Furthermore, we examined dental characters from a large series of specimens and compared the morphological variation with the molecular data. ResultsOur phylogenetic analyses revealed that P. hermaphroditus is paraphyletic. We identified three major lineages distributed: (1) in the Indian subcontinent, south China, Hainan and in areas above 200 m in Indochina; (2) in Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Sumatra and in areas below 200 m in Indochina; and (3) in Borneo, the Philippines and the Mentawai archipelago. Our morphological observations were congruent with these three molecular lineages. Divergence date estimates inferred a Pliocene origin for Paradoxurus (2.8-5.7 Ma), with the three main clades diversifying from the mid-Early Pliocene to the end of the Pliocene. We suggest that the flooding of the Isthmus of Kra during the Pliocene was a major event shaping the diversification of Paradoxurus palm civets. We also hypothesize that the elevational segregation of the two lineages on the mainland could have resulted from the vegetational changes that were induced by Late Pliocene glacial episodes.Main conclusions The Isthmus of Kra is a major boundary between two major lineages of P. hermaphroditus. There is a need for a taxonomic revision for P. hermaphroditus, and we suggest that this species should be split into at least three species.

Molecular systematics and biogeography of the Hemigalinae civets (Mammalia, Carnivora)

“…Our results suggest that there have been independent connections between Borneo and Sumatran populations, and between Borneo and Peninsular Malaysian populations (in this study represented by an individual from Penang Island, which is very close and connected to the NW coast of Peninsular Malaysia). Although Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra have been connected frequently during glacial periods, the banded civet individuals from these two areas did not form a monophyletic group in our analyses, whereas a close relationship and low differentiation of populations from Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia have been found in many other mammals, such as rodents, macaques, palm civets and mongooses (Gorog et al 2004;Ziegler et al 2007;Patou et al 2010;Veron et al 2015a). Possible explanations for these findings would be independent dispersals during periods of lower sea levels (e.g., Last Glacial Maximum), or that banded civets were transported from one area to another, as has been suggested for some other civet species (Veron et al 2014(Veron et al , 2015c, although there is no evidence that this has ever occurred for the banded civet.…”

“…In contrast, the Mentawai population of the common palm civet (Paradoxurus sp.) was found to be closer to those from Borneo and the Philippines (Paradoxurus philippinensis) than to the nearby Sumatran populations (Paradoxurus musangus) (Patou et al 2010;Veron et al 2015c). Although the four Mentawai Islands (Siberut, Sipora, North and South Pagai) are close to Sumatra, they are separated by a deep sea channel, the Mentawai Strait, which has isolated populations and explains the high level of species endemism on these islands .…”

“…Although the four Mentawai Islands (Siberut, Sipora, North and South Pagai) are close to Sumatra, they are separated by a deep sea channel, the Mentawai Strait, which has isolated populations and explains the high level of species endemism on these islands . Their strong divergence from Sumatran populations might also be explained by local extinctions during the Pleistocene (Patou et al 2010;) and the Mentawai Islands might have served as a forest refuge during glaciations. The divergence time of Mentawai taxa has been estimated from 1.1 to 3.5 Mya in mammals (Patou et al 2010;.…”

“…Their strong divergence from Sumatran populations might also be explained by local extinctions during the Pleistocene (Patou et al 2010;) and the Mentawai Islands might have served as a forest refuge during glaciations. The divergence time of Mentawai taxa has been estimated from 1.1 to 3.5 Mya in mammals (Patou et al 2010;. The Mentawai Islands have been separated from Sumatra at least since the Mid-Pleistocene and might have remained separated despite the sea level fluctuations of the Late Pleistocene (Voris 2000;.…”

“…Polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) were performed as in Patou et al (2010), with annealing temperatures of 50°C for Cytb and ND2, 61°C for CR, and 59°C for FGB. PCR products were visualized on a 1.5% agarose gel.…”