Evolution of Toilets Worldwide through the Millennia

Abstract

Throughout history, various civilizations developed methodologies for the collection and disposal of human waste. The methodologies throughout the centuries have been characterized by technological peaks on the one hand, and by the disappearance of the technologies and their reappearance on the other. The purpose of this article is to trace the development of sewage collection and transport with an emphasis on toilets in ancient civilizations. Evolution of the major achievements in the scientific fields of sanitation with emphasis on the lavatory (or toilets) technologies through the centuries up to the present are presented. Valuable insights into ancient wastewater technologies and management with their apparent characteristics of durability, adaptability to the environment, and sustainability are provided. Gradual steps improved the engineering results until the establishment of the contemporary toilet system, which provides a combined solution for flushing, odor control, and the sanitation of sewerage. Even though the lack of proper toilet facilities for a great percentage of the present day global population is an embarrassing fact, the worldwide efforts through millennia for the acquisition of a well-engineered toilet were connected to the cultural level of each period.

Water Reuse: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future

“…For example, in China the objective has been to reuse the nutrients present in human excreta for fertilizing agricultural lands. Similarly, urine was separated and collected in simple toilets as described by Antoniou et al (2016). In other regions of the world, the main purpose for separation of urine has been to obtain a dry, manageable and hygienic fecal fraction.…”

“…emission of eutrophication agents and an increase in their reuse (Antoniou et al, 2016). However, the use of urine separation toilets diminished early in the twentieth century.…”

Human rights, sanitation, and sewers

“…The first known toilet was in Mesopotamia (4,000 BCE) and consisted of deep pits lined with permeable hollow ceramic cylinders that held excrement and let liquids seep out (Wald, 2016). There was no apparent flush mechanism, but multiple cities had pipes of baked clay that transported sewage to cesspits outside the city walls (Antoniou et al, 2016). The first construction of flushing toilet facilities in Europe was in Bronze Age Crete (2,000-1,000 BCE) (Juuti et al, 2007).…”

Integrated nutrient recovery from source-separated domestic wastewaters for application as fertilisers

“…Domestic wastewaters are carriers of organic matter and nutrients, largely originating from food: faeces, urine and food waste [1][2][3]. Throughout human history many different types of latrines, cesspits, toilets and sewers have been developed, abandoned and re-invented, with the earliest flush toilets dating back several millennia BC [4]. The fertiliser qualities of human waste were recognised and valued, with large amounts being collected in cesspits and bucket latrines, sold and applied in agriculture.…”

“…It is now widely recognised that adequate sanitation is vital in preserving human health [5,6]. Widespread sewer use started around the 1850's, and from then on it was slowly implemented in cities across the world, together with the use of flush toilets [4,7]. The post-WWII rapid urbanisation period of 1950-1970 was accompanied by a large increase in the number of flush toilets and sewer connections, followed by the implementation of sewage treatment plants (STPs) [8].…”