Evolution of Therapeutic Antibodies, Influenza Virus Biology, Influenza, and Influenza Immunotherapy

Abstract

This narrative review article summarizes past and current technologies for generating antibodies for passive immunization/immunotherapy. Contemporary DNA and protein technologies have facilitated the development of engineered therapeutic monoclonal antibodies in a variety of formats according to the required effector functions. Chimeric, humanized, and human monoclonal antibodies to antigenic/epitopic myriads with less immunogenicity than animal-derived antibodies in human recipients can be produced in vitro. Immunotherapy with ready-to-use antibodies has gained wide acceptance as a powerful treatment against both infectious and noninfectious diseases. Influenza, a highly contagious disease, precipitates annual epidemics and occasional pandemics, resulting in high health and economic burden worldwide. Currently available drugs are becoming less and less effective against this rapidly mutating virus. Alternative treatment strategies are needed, particularly for individuals at high risk for severe morbidity. In a setting where vaccines are not yet protective or available, human antibodies that are broadly effective against various influenza subtypes could be highly efficacious in lowering morbidity and mortality and controlling unprecedented epidemic/pandemic. Prototypes of human single-chain antibodies to several conserved proteins of influenza virus with no Fc portion (hence, no ADE effect in recipients) are available. These antibodies have high potential as a novel, safe, and effective anti-influenza agent.

Immunopathological similarities between COVID-19 and influenza: Investigating the consequences of Co-infection

“…Budding and release of newly assembled virions in order to infect surrounding cells are the functions of NA along with M1 and M2 proteins [ 27 , 29 , 30 ]. Nucleoprotein encapsidates the genetic content of virus, and non-structural proteins are mainly involved in host immune suppression and viral translation enhancement [ 30 , 31 ].…”

Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies for Influenza: Passive Immunotherapy and Intranasal Vaccination

“…V H H forms a single-domain paratope with a molecular weight of approximately 15 kDa [ 58 , 62 ]. V H H is 10 times smaller than a whole IgG antibody (around 150 kDa) and half of a single-chain variable fragment (scFv) consist of a V H and V L -linked domain and a linker oligopeptide of around 30 kDa [ 58 , 63 , 64 ]. Therefore, V H Hs are called “nanobodies” [ 64 ].…”

Human Antibodies to VP4 Inhibit Replication of Enteroviruses Across Subgenotypes and Serotypes, and Enhance Host Innate Immunity

“…Nowadays, infections are commonly treated by using chemical/pharmacologic antimicrobial agents. Nevertheless, antibodies still have therapeutic niche for viral infections, intoxications, envenomation, cancers and inflammatory disorders ( Chaisri and Chaicumpa, 2018 ). Single-chain variable fragment (scFv) or single-chain antibody has emerged as an engineered monovalent antigen-binding molecule.…”