Evolution of Computers and Computing

Davis, Ruth M.

doi:10.1126/science.195.4283.1096

Cited by 27 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 3 publications

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“…The standardization of FORTRAN facilitated the transfer of software among machines of different vendors and made FORTRAN extremely popular [ 33 ]. It soon became the standard language for scientifi c and engineering applications; by 1987 it was estimated that as much as one-fourth of the world's available machine cycles ran with code generated by some form of FORTRAN [ 84 ].…”

Section: Higher-level Programming Languagesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In contrast, once a program had been compiled, the compiler was no longer needed, resulting in faster overall performance. With the development of higher level languages, where one English statement could give rise to many machine instructions, programs tended to be shorter and quicker to write, less prone to error, and able to run on different computers [ 84 ]. LISP (LISt Processing) language was developed in the late 1950s by McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as a research tool to study artifi cial intelligence [ 3 ].…”

Section: Higher-level Programming Languagesmentioning

confidence: 99%

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The Development of Digital Computers

Collen¹,

Kulikowski

2015

Health Informatics

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In the 1950s, the transistor replaced the vacuum tubes that had empowered Eniac, Colossus, and other early computers in the 1940s. In the 1960s and 1970s, computing moved from slow, expensive mainframes to faster mini-and microcomputers and multiprocessors, empowered by chip technology and integrated circuits, and leveraged by increasingly sophisticated operating systems and programming languages. By the 1980s, commercially available programs were able to perform commonly needed computational functions. With the growth of computer capabilities and computer storage capacities, database technology and database management systems gave rise to the development of distributed database systems. Effi cient computer-stored databases proved essential to many medical computing applications, making vast amounts of data available to users. Over time computer applications became more numerous and complex, with software claiming a larger fraction of computing costs. Display terminals and clinical workstations offered graphic displays and supported structured data entry and reporting. Devices, such as the mouse, light pens, touch screens, and input technologies, such as speech and handwriting recognition, were developed to ease the user's tasks and foster physician acceptance. Over the same span of time, computer communications evolved as well, moving from copper wire to fi ber optic cable and, most recently, to wireless systems. The Internet and the World Wide Web became the main modes used for local and global communications. By the 2010s laptops replaced desktop computers, and tablets and smart phones were commonplace in health care.

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Section: Higher-level Programming Languagesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Higher-level Programming Languagesmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Development of Digital Computers

Collen¹,

Kulikowski

2015

Health Informatics

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“…Written in the LISP programming language, MYCIN used medical knowledge acquired from experts in the fi eld of infectious diseases to help assess each patient's needs, and to then give advice and provide explanations for its judgments [ 44 ]. MYCIN was composed of three programs.…”

Section: Clinical Decision Support Systems (Cdss)mentioning

confidence: 99%

Decision Support Systems (DSS)

Collen¹,

McCray

2015

Health Informatics

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In the 1970s, to control costs and comply with Medicare rules, hospitals began to use computer-based systems for utilization review. In the early 1980s, a diagnostic related group (DRG) approach was applied to hospital payments, and increasingly complex data reporting requirements led hospitals to establish quality assurance programs. Medical information, or medical knowledge, databases for clinical decision support (CDS) were developed in the 1980s. The capabilities provided by online real time monitoring, vastly increased data storage, and physician order entry and results reporting (OE/RR) came together in CDS programs in the 2000s; by 2010 most physicians were using systems that provided online practice guidelines as well as clinical reminders and alerts about potential adverse clinical events. These advances build upon techniques from other fi elds, including artifi cial intelligence; the emergence of huge clinical databases in the 1990s led to the use of data mining to uncover previously unknown important relationships between clinical data elements, and the use of effi cient knowledge discovery algorithms to extract knowledge from data by identifying and describing patterns in a meaningful manner. To support knowledge creation in biomedicine, the National Library of Medicine produces and maintains hundreds of up-to-date scientifi c databases, including MEDLINE (over 23 million citations with 700,000 posted in 2013 alone), human genome resources, toxicology and environmental databases (searched billions of times a year by millions around the globe).

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“…. in real time or pseudo real time" (Davis, 1977(Davis, , p. 1096). Note that (ii) can be considered a generalization of (i), because numbers are a kind of data and because performing calculations with numbers is a kind of manipulation of data.…”

Section: What Is a Computer Given The Engineering History?mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…(We'll look into this in Chapter 17. ) According to (Davis, 1977(Davis, , pp. 1096(Davis, -1097, computers had evolved to have the following "key characteristics" (perhaps among others):…”

Section: What Is a Computer Given The Engineering History?mentioning

confidence: 99%

Philosophy of Computer Science

Rapaport

2005

Teaching Philosophy

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Evolution of Computers and Computing

Cited by 27 publications

References 3 publications

The Development of Digital Computers

The Development of Digital Computers

Decision Support Systems (DSS)

Philosophy of Computer Science

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